Memory and Retrieval – Study Notes

Vocabulary-style flashcards covering memory models, memory systems, encoding/retrieval processes, and key research concepts from the notes.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage system that retains incoming sensory information for a few seconds.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory; holds visual information for about half a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory; registers sounds for about 2–4 seconds.

Masking

Overwriting of existing sensory information with new input, limiting retention.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Actively relating new information to existing knowledge to aid transfer to long-term memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition that extends short-term memory briefly but does not transfer info to long-term storage.

Short-Term Memory

Brief storage of information for about 15–30 seconds; maintenance rehearsal can extend it slightly but not transfer to long-term storage.

Working Memory

Temporarily holds and manipulates information while in use.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent storage; enhanced by elaborative rehearsal.

Chunking

Grouping items into meaningful units to maximize capacity.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memory; includes semantic memory and episodic memory.

Semantic Memory

Knowledge of facts, general information.

Episodic Memory

Personal experiences and specific life events.

Implicit (Procedural) Memory

Unconscious skills and routines, such as riding a bicycle.

Flashbulb Memories

Highly detailed memories from emotionally significant events; may form rapidly and persist.

Amygdala

Brain region central to processing fear/anxiety and flashbulb memories; activation enhances memory retention.

Cerebellum

Brain region important for forming procedural memories; damage can impair motor skills.

Broca’s Area

Brain region critical for speech production; damage affects language abilities.

Mnemonic Devices

Structured tools to aid recall, such as PEMDAS or HOMES.

Context-Dependent Memory

Recall is improved when learning and retrieval occur in the same physical environment.

State-Dependent Memory

Recall affected by internal states; consistency between studying and testing improves retrieval.

Primacy Effect

Better memory for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better memory for items at the end of a list.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember first and last items better than middle items (primacy and recency effects).

Misinformation Effect

Memory can be altered by new information introduced after the event.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new long-term memories after brain injury.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before a brain injury.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Observer Bias

Researchers’ expectations can influence what they record or interpret.

Reactivity

Participants’ awareness of being observed can alter their behavior.

Case Study

Detailed examination of a single individual or small group; e.g., Phineas Gage.

Random Sampling

Every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected.

Correlation

Measures relationships between two or more variables; does not by itself establish causation.

Positive Correlation

Both variables increase together.

Negative Correlation

One variable increases as the other decreases.

No Correlation

Data show no evident relationship between variables.

Correlation Coefficient

Numerical index (-1 to +1) of the strength and direction of a relationship.

Scatterplot

Graph showing data points to visualize the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable (IV)

The manipulated variable expected to cause changes.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome measured to assess the effect of the IV.

Random Assignment

Participants are assigned to groups by chance to reduce pre-existing differences.

True Experiment

Experiment that controls confounding variables; only the IV differs between groups.

Causation

A cause‑and‑effect relationship established through controlled experimentation; correlation does not imply causation.

Effortful Processing

Deep, meaningful encoding that improves transfer to long-term memory.

Shallow Processing

Simple repetition or surface-level encoding; less effective for lasting retention.

Phineas Gage

Case study illustrating how brain injury can alter personality and behavior.