AP Psych - Learning pt. 1

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior that results from experience.

Most is associative learning (learning that certain events occur together)

Associative Learning

We learn by association. Our minds naturally connect events that occur in sequence.

Classical Conditioning

Conditioning in which associations are made between a natural stimulus and a learned, neutral stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically elicits a response

Example of UCS - meat (because it automatically elicits a response of salivation)

Unconditioned response (UCR)

the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the UCS

Example of UCR - salivation (because it is an automatic response to meat)

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

a stimulus that does not elicit any response by itself.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with the unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus

What part of classical conditioning are the same?

UCR = CR
NS = CS

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning.
The phase where an association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus takes place.

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned response.

The CR (salivation) will eventually "become extinct" when the UCS (food) does not follow the CS (experimenter or bell).

Spontaneous Recovery

A formerly extinct CR can be spontaneously recovered when the CS is again presented after extinction.

After a rest period, an extinguished CR (salivation) spontaneously recovers, but if the CS (experimenter or bell) persists alone, the CR becomes extinct again.

Habituation

Is when an organism becomes accustomed to a repeated stimulus, resulting in a decreased response over time because learning has taken place.

In classical conditioning, responses that have been habituated may cause a decreased response.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit similar responses.

Pavlov conditioned the dog's salivation (CR) by using miniature devices that made vibrations (CS) on the thigh. When he subsequently stimulated other parts of the dog's body, salivation dropped.

Stimulus Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.

Higher-order conditioning

occurs when a CS functions as if it were a UCS to establish new conditioning (condition to respond to a tone with saliva, pair the tone with a light).

Taste aversions

unique conditioned responses that occur after a single pairing of nausea with eating a specific food - this is known as one-trial conditioning.

One-trial conditioning

occurs when the association is acquired through one pairing of the stimulus and response and is not strengthened by further pairings.

Ex: It only took one time for you to pair that food with nausea and stay away from it - it didn't need to happen repeatedly for acquisition to take place.

Little Albert experiment

In order to study conditioned, or learned, behaviors, Watson put a white laboratory rat in the room with Albert. Albert loved the animal and would often play with it. While Albert played, Watson would sneak up behind him and bang a steel bar with a hammer, creating a horrible, startling noise. Albert, of course, would be terrified and begin to cry. Each time Albert reached for the rat, Watson repeated the loud noise. Eventually, Little Albert became terrified of the rat.

Pavlov´s discovery

Pavlov experimented on dogs by surgically separating their stomach from their esophagus (which carries food from the mouth to the stomach). In the course of his research, Pavlov noticed three main things:
Food put directly into the stomach did not generate enough gastric juices for digestion. Therefore, salivation at the time of eating is critical to proper digestion.
Even when no food was put directly into the dog's mouth, the animal would still salivate at the sight of food.
Eventually, the sight of the experimenter who fed the animal (or the sound of a bell) would cause salivation even if the experimenter was not carrying food.

Operant Conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.

In other words, consequences lead to changes in voluntary behavior

How are classical and operant conditioning similar?

They are both a type of associative learning
Classical - learning that certain events occur together (UCS and CS)
Operant - learning to associate a response with a consequence

They both use acquisition, discrimination, generalization, extinction, and spontaneous recovery

What is the difference between classical and operant conditioning?

Classical:
forms associations between stimuli (CS and US).
involves respondent behavior that occurs as an automatic response to a certain stimulus (no thinking involved).

Operant:
forms an association between behaviors and the resulting events.
involves operant behavior, a behavior that operates on the environment, producing rewarding or punishing stimuli (behaviors have consequences).

Reinforcement

strengthening a behavior
You increase the likelihood that the behavior will continue
(_ always makes you happy!)

Punishment

weakening a behavior
You decrease the likelihood that the behavior will continue
( always makes you sad!)

Positive reinforcemnt

Strengthens the tendency to repeat a response by presenting (adding) a pleasant stimulus after a response.

Negative reinforcement

Strengthens the tendency to repeat a response by reducing or removing (taking away) an aversive stimulus, or something unpleasant.

In other words, something the learner does not want is stopped or taken away
(-, negative) after an action. (Reinforcement by removal)

For example:
Your mother keeps nagging you to clean your room. You eventually do clean your room because you want the nagging to stop. The nagging is the negative reinforcer that is removed after you perform the desired action.
You give your little brother/sister a cookie before dinner to stop their whining.

Primary Reinforcers

Stimuli that are inherently or innately reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Food, water, warmth, sex, and maybe affection expressed through hugging and close bodily contact.

Secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers (learned, or conditioned reinforcement)

Money, good grades, attention, flattery, praise, applause, etc.

Immediate Reinforcer

A reinforcer that occurs instantly after a behavior. (Ex: a rat gets a food pellet for a bar press)

Delayed reinforcer

A reinforcer that is delayed in time for a certain behavior (Ex: a paycheck that comes at the end of the week)

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

It results in faster acquisition, but also faster extinction

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Though this results in slower acquisition in the beginning, it shows greater resistance to extinction later on.

Ratio

number of times a behavior is performed

Interval

a period of time has elapsed

With partial reinforcement schedules, reinforcement is given depending on…

Ratio = number of times a behavior is performed
OR
Interval = a period of time has elapsed

Variable

the number of times/amount of time varies (changes)
You DON'T know when a reward is coming

Fixed

the number of times/amount of time is fixed (stays the same)
You DO know when a reward is coming

Ratio schedule

require the organism to make the designated response a certain number of times to gain each reinforcer.

Fixed-ratio schedule

Reinforces a response only after a specified (fixed) number of non-reinforced responses.

Ex: Punch cards, box tops from cereal, money for grades after a certain number of straight-A report cards

Variable-Ratio Schedule:

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable (variable) number of non-reinforced responses.
Most effective. The unpredictable nature leads to a high and steady rate of responding. It is hard to extinguish because of the unpredictability.

Ex: gambling (slot machines, etc.)

Fixed-Interval Schedule:

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response only after a specific (fixed) time interval has elapsed.

Ex: paycheck

Variable-Interval Schedule:

A schedule of reinforcement that reinforces a response after an unpredictable (variable) time interval has elapsed.

Ex: pop quizzes, fishing, new postings/likes on social media, checking email, waiting for something to happen on a TV series you keep watching
BeReal app!

Positive punishment

Involves the presentation or addition (+) of an unpleasant stimulus or event following a behavior.
Because the stimulus is unpleasant, it acts to decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. (Punishment by application)

For example:
You arrive to school one-half-hour late and receive after-school detention. You arrive on time after this.
You forgot to pay your credit card bill on time and are assessed a $25.00 late fee. You pay your credit card bill on time after this.

Negative punishment

Involves the removal (-) of a pleasant stimulus or event following a behavior.
Because the stimulus being removed is pleasant, it acts to decrease the likelihood of the behavior being repeated. (Punishment by removal)

For example:
You break your curfew so your parents take your car away for two weeks.
A child in kindergarten throws a building block across the room and is sent to time out for five minutes.
A man is sent to prison for 30 years for "whacking" a rival mob boss.

Disadvantages of punishment

Unwanted side effects
Fear, rage, aggression (spanked children may become more aggressive), a different unwanted behavior might appear in its place
Subjects learn to avoid the punisher, or feel aggression or anger toward him/her/it
It might justify pain to others
Punishment may suppress rather than eliminate such unwanted behaviors
I can still swear when I'm at school, just not in front of dad
Conveys no information to the organism
Alone, it does not teach what is acceptable behavior

Learned Helplessness

when organisms learn that they have no control over their experience of aversive consequences in a given situation.

In other words, they start to believe that their actions have no affect on their environment.

Acqusition (Operant)

As in classical conditioning, _ refers to the initial stage of learning.

Extinction (Operant)

In operant conditioning, ___ refers to the gradual weakening and disappearance of a response tendency because the response is no longer followed by a reinforcer.

For example, if you stop giving a rat food when it presses a lever, the rat will show a brief surge of responding (pressing the lever) followed by a gradual decline until it approaches zero.

Generalization (Operant)

refers to a behavior that spreads from one situation to a similar one. (A new stimulus is responded to as if it were the original)

For example:
Joe makes a wisecrack in his 1st hour biology class, and everyone laughs, even the teacher.
Generalization= He makes wisecracks in other classes, in front of other teachers.
A small boy pats two different dogs and both dogs wag their tails.
Generalization= The boy assumes all dogs are friendly.

Discrimination (Operant)

Occurs when an organism responds to one stimulus, but not another one similar to it (Learning to tell the difference between one event or object and another. the reverse of generalization)

Ex: Your cat runs to the sound of a can-opener which signals food, but not to the sound of the mixer.
Can sometimes happen when a subject no longer receives reinforcement for a certain behavior (or receives some sort of punishment/bad response)
For example:
Joe makes wisecracks in other classes, but when no one laughs or the teacher glares at him, he stops. He decides to tell jokes only during 1st hour.
The boy pats a third dog, and that dog bites him. He learns to tell the difference (discriminate) between dogs, or between situations that are not the same.

Shaping

A procedure in Operant Conditioning in which reinforcers guide behavior closer and closer towards a goal.

Successive approximations - the step-by-step movement towards the goal

Ex: Learning how to swim in the deep end - start splashing in toddler pool, move to water wings, then kickboards, then strokes in the shallow end, then deep end. Reward with praise as each step is accomplished to guide towards finished product!

____ is key in pet tricks

Successive Approximations

the step-by-step movement towards the goal

Biological predisposition

Biological constraints predispose organisms to learn associations that are naturally adaptive.
Breland and Breland (1961) showed that animals drift towards their biologically predisposed instinctive behaviors.

Instinctual drift

refers to when an organism reverts to biologically predisposed patterns.

For example, they successfully taught a raccoon to deposit one wooden coin into a piggy bank (a metal container) for food reinforcement. But when the raccoon was given two coins, it started rubbing the coins together and dipping them (not dropping them) into the container. It was performing the motor program raccoons use to "wash" food in a stream. Rubbing two objects together is instinctual for raccoons and cannot be modified by conditioning or learning experiences.

Social learning

Learning from the behavior of others

Observational learning

A form of social learning in which the organism observes and imitates the behavior of others

Imitation onset

Learning by observation begins early in life. This 14-month-old child imitates the adult on TV in pulling a toy apart.

Vicarious conditioning

In observational learning, occurs by an organism watching another organism (a model) be conditioned.

Observational learning can occur for both classical and operant conditioning.

Albert Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961)

indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive rewards and punishments.

Insight learning

occurs when the solution to a problem occurs without any association, consequence, or model being present.

A camper realizes they can use a rock to hammer in tent stakes after struggling with just their hands, despite no prior training or demonstration suggesting this.

Latent Learning

Is learning that has taken place but doesn't show up until later.

Learning occurs w/o reinforcement, but you don't really see it (it's not exhibited) until there is some reinforcement or incentive to demonstrate it.

Ex: You have watched your mom make mac and cheese your whole life. You've never done it yourself and no one has asked you to do so. Then, one day, when you are 13 and your mom is in a hurry, she tells you that if you make dinner, you can have a sleepover. Voila! You know how to make the macaroni and cheese and do so successfully. Positive reinforcement causes you to perform, for the first time, a behavior you had already learned but maybe didn't realize you'd learned.

Cognitive map

a mental picture or image of the layout of the physical environment. These come about through latent learning.

What are possible AAQ research methods?

"The research method used is a __"

Case Study
Naturalistic Observation
Meta-Analysis
Correlational Research

Experiment

Mary Never Eats Cotton Candy

---

Case Study
used when something is rare, very few subjects but get a lot of data about those subjects (medical information, where they grew up, family history, etc.). Sometimes initials or aliases are used.

Naturalistic Observation
observing something in its natural environment without their knowledge or without manipulating the situation.

Meta-Analysis
a compilation of multiple studies leads to conclusions

Correlation
comparison between 2 variables (not independent or dependent) to determine if there is a relationship between them. No cause and effect.

Experiment
random assignment is mentioned or there is manipulation of variables (control group and experimental group)

Operational Definitions

Operational definitions are PRECISE and usually NUMERICAL (notice Sample Prompt 2 is non-numerical) descriptions of how variables in a study were MEASURED. Remember our mnemonic: OPERATION (the game) is VERY precise.

"The operational definition of _ is quantified by ___."

"Describe what the [statistic] indicates about the [variable, participants, etc.] in the study."

Possible Statistics They Might Ask About
Mean
Median
Mode
Range
Standard Deviation
Percentile
Correlation Coefficient (r =)
Statistical Significance
Effect Size

¨The (insert question) indicates .
The results of the study back this up because ___."

"Identify one ethical guideline described in the study. Describe one way the researchers in the study applied the ethical guideline."

The study was approved by an Institutional Review Board (IRB)
Researchers obtained informed consent from adult participants
Researchers obtained informed assent from participants under 18
Researchers protected participants from harm OR the study is clearly not harmful
Researchers kept participant identity anonymous and information confidential
Researchers debriefed participants at the CONCLUSION of the study
If deception is used, it must be justified, safe, necessary, and included in the debriefing

"One ethical guideline described in the study is . It was applied by _"

"Explain the extent to which the research findings may or may not be generalizable using specific and relevant evidence from the study."

The research (is OR is not) generalizable to a population of __
because the sample _(did OR did not)_ include .

"Explain how at least one of the research findings supports or refutes [hypothesis, AP Psychology vocabulary word, etc.]."

The (hypothesis or concept) of is (supported or refuted).
Results from the study that back up this claim are . This backs up the claim because (explain)_.