Psychology Research Methods: Survey Wording, Pilot Studies, and Experimental Designs

Loaded / Assumptive Question

A question that assumes something is true about the respondent, which can bias their answer.

Double Negative / Confusing Wording

A question that includes confusing phrasing like "do not" + "dislike," making answers hard to interpret.

Leading Question

A question that pressures the respondent toward a certain answer by implying most people already agree.

Pilot Study

A small preliminary test of a survey used to identify problems before the real study.

Reliability

The consistency of a measure — whether it produces the same results over time.

Validity

Whether a measure actually tests what it claims to measure.

Why pilot data is NOT used

It is only for testing and improving the survey, not for final data analysis.

Descriptive Correlational Research

Examines whether a relationship exists between two variables.

Predictive Correlational Research

Uses one variable to predict another variable.

Example: Descriptive

Is there a relationship between sleep and stress?

Example: Predictive

Can sleep predict stress?

Between-Subjects Design

Different participants are used for each condition.

Strength of Between-Subjects Design

No order effects

Weakness of Between-Subjects Design

Requires more participants

Example: Between-Subjects Design

One group studies with music, another in silence.

Within-Subjects Design

The same participants experience all conditions.

Strength of Within-Subjects Design

Fewer participants, controls individual differences

Weakness of Within-Subjects Design

Order effects, fatigue

Example: Within-Subjects Design

Same person studies with music and without.

Counterbalancing

Used in within-subjects designs to reduce order effects by changing the order of conditions.

Example of Counterbalancing

Half complete Task A first, half complete Task B first.

Matched Design

Used in between-subjects designs by matching participants on key characteristics (ex: GPA, age).

Example of Matched Design

Match students by GPA before placing them into groups.

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that is manipulated by the researcher.

Example IV 1

Spokesperson status (celebrity vs non-celebrity)

Example IV 2

Music (music vs no music)

Dependent Variable (DV)

The outcome that is measured (ad effectiveness rating).

Interaction

When the effect of one independent variable depends on the level of another independent variable.

No Interaction

The two independent variables affect the dependent variable separately, not together.

Quasi-Experiment

An experiment without random assignment to groups.

Quasi-IV

Age group (teen vs adult)

DV in Quasi-Experiment

Number of songs purchased

Pre-Test

Measurement taken before the treatment.

Post-Test

Measurement taken after the treatment.

Attrition Bias

When participants drop out of a study before it ends.

Maturation Bias

Natural changes that occur in participants over time.

History Bias

External events that occur during a long study that can influence results.