Psych: 4.2/ 4.3/4.6/4.7

Facial Feedback Hypothesis

Facial expressions influence emotional experiences.

Broaden-and-Build Theory

Positive emotions broaden awareness and actions.

Common Sense Theory

Stimulus leads to emotion, then physiological response.

James-Lange Theory

Stimulus causes physiological response, then emotion.

Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus triggers simultaneous physiological response and emotion.

Schachter-Singer Theory

Emotion arises from physiological response and cognitive appraisal.

Lazarus Theory

Cognitive appraisal precedes physiological response and emotion.

Zajonc-LeDoux Theory

Emotions occur independently of cognitive appraisal.

Emotional Impact on Attention

Emotions can enhance or impair focus and memory.

Decision-Making and Emotions

Emotions influence the speed and quality of decisions.

Emotions and Relationships

Positive emotions strengthen interpersonal connections.

Health and Emotions

Managing emotions contributes to better mental health.

Cultural Emotion Expression

Cultures vary in emotional expression and interpretation.

Paul Ekman

Studied universal emotions and facial expressions.

Universal Emotions

Basic emotions recognized across cultures.

Mixed Results in Emotion Research

Studies show varying conclusions on emotion universality.

Cognitive Labeling

Cognitive interpretation necessary for emotional experience.

Motivation

A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Motivation - stimulus

Stimulus that directs behavior of humans and animals.

Achievement motivation

Theory that we are motivated to challenge ourselves even without skills, knowledge, or rewards.

Intrinsic motivation

Doing behavior for yourself; stronger and longer lasting.

Extrinsic motivation

Doing behavior for external factors.

Overjustification effect

External factor decreases intrinsic motivation.

Instinct Theory/Evolutionary Theory of Motivation

Named people's behaviors as instincts patterned in a species and focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors.

Arousal Theory

Theory that your environment can affect your drives/arousal and that there is an optimum arousal level.

Hypothalamus

Controls arousal to maintain homeostasis.

Lateral hypothalamus

Activates when it's time to eat and produces orexin.

Ventromedial hypothalamus

Activates to stop eating.

Hormones for hunger

Orexin and ghrelin (more hungry); PYY and leptin (less hungry).

Set-point theory

Hypothalamus tends to maintain a certain body weight.

Garcia effect

Certain foods make you more or less hungry.

Sexual motivation

Drives from biological, psychological, and social factors.

Refractory period

Males enter this period in which they cannot achieve orgasm again.

Approach-approach conflict

Choose between two desirable outcomes.

Avoidance-avoidance conflict

Choose between two undesirable outcomes.

Approach-avoidance conflict

Choice has a desirable and undesirable outcome.

Multiple approach-avoidance conflict

Choose between multiple options that have mixed outcomes.

Drive reduction theory

Individuals are trying to keep their bodies in homeostasis; if their body is moved out of homeostasis, they will become motivated to correct the change.

Self-efficacy

An individual's belief in their ability to succeed in specific situations.

Cognitive Consistency

Individuals seek to maintain a consistent cognitive system; if they experience something that disrupts that, they become motivated to fix the inconsistency.

Eating Motivation

Eating is a complex motivated behavior that demonstrates how physical and mental processes interact.

Hormones in Hunger Regulation

Hormones, such as ghrelin and leptin (regulated by the hypothalamus via the pituitary gland), regulate feelings of hunger and satiety.

External Factors Influencing Eating

External factors like the presence of food, time of day, or social gatherings around meals also influence the behavior of eating.

Peripheral route persuasion

Produces fast results as people respond to incidental cues (like celebrity endorsements) and make snap judgements.

Central route persuasion

Uses evidence and arguments to influence favorable thoughts, leading to more thoughtful and deep changes in behavior.

Foot-in-the-door phenomenon

Tendency for people who first agree with a small request to comply later with a larger one.

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior/thinking to match other people or a group.

Pyramid of Hate

A conceptual framework that illustrates the progression of hate from biased attitudes to acts of violence.

Social Situations Reflection

An examination of how different social contexts influence behavior and thought processes.

Milgram Experiment

An experiment that measured willingness to obey authority figures, even when it involved harming others.

Stereotyping

Lumping together all people of a particular group based on generalized beliefs.

Informational social influence

Assumption that the group is smarter than the individual; we conform because we want to be accurate.

Normative social influence

Wanting to fit in so we conform to avoid rejection and gain approval.

Compliance

Change in behavior without a change in opinion (going with the group).

Identification

Adopting group's views because the individual values the group membership, often temporarily.

Internalization

Change in behavior and opinion (aka true conformity).

Chameleon effect

Another term for automatic mimicry; helps empathize by mirroring others' visible emotions.

Groupthink

People's desire for harmony in a group leads to suppressing or self-censoring dissension.

Solomon Asch Experiment (1951)

An experiment that studied conformity by having subjects compare line lengths in groups.

Conformity components

Factors that increase the likelihood of conformity, such as feeling incompetent or being in a group of 3+ people.

Prior commitment

Having made a prior commitment to any response decreases the likelihood of conformity.

Group agreement

Conformity is more likely when everyone in the group agrees.

Obedience

Obeying person has to accept that it is legitimate for the command to be made of them.

Obedience explanations

We obey because of social pressures and influences in the environment, including fear.

Obedience vs Compliance

Similar to compliance, but the person giving instructions has to be in authority.

Stanley Milgram Experiment (1961)

An experiment that studied obedience to authority figures.

Social influence theory

Proposes that social pressure to behave or think in certain ways can be normative or informational.

Foot-in-the-door technique

A persuasion technique that involves getting a person to agree to a large request by first setting them up with a smaller request.

Door-in-the-face technique

A persuasion technique that involves making a large request that is expected to be refused, followed by a smaller request.

Altruism

The selfless concern for the well-being of others.

Social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well-learned tasks in the presence of others

Social inhibition

what you find difficult may be even moreso with an audience

Social loafing

tendency for people in a group to put in less effort when pooling efforts toward attaining a common goal

In-groups

groups that we are a part of and favor

Out-groups

groups we do not belong and we often place negative qualities (a form of 'other'-ing)

Deindividuation

process where people lose their sense of socialized individual identity and resort to unsocialized and anti-social behavior

Group polarization

like-minded people share ideas resulting in a more extreme position for every individual

Groupthink

individuals self-censor their own beliefs to preserve harmony in the group

False consensus effect

people often overestimate the levels to which others agree with them

Social traps

when individuals do not unite and act in their own self-interest to the detriment of the group

Industrial-organizational (I/O) psychologists

study how people perform in the workplace

Social exchange theory

social behavior based on weighing costs/benefits of our actions

Reciprocity norm

expect people will help us if we help them

Social responsibility norm

people help those needing help even if costs outweigh benefits

Bystander effect

situational and attentional variables predict whether someone is likely to help another person

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

We act to reduce the discomfort/dissonance we feel when two of our thoughts or our thoughts and actions are inconsistent.

Attitudes

Feelings that impact our reactions to objects, people, and events.

Attitude Formation

The process by which individuals develop their feelings and beliefs about various subjects.

Attitude Change

The process through which an individual's feelings and beliefs are altered.

Belief Perseverance

The tendency to hold on to one's beliefs even when faced with contrary evidence.

Leon Festinger

A psychologist who studied cognitive dissonance through experiments involving participants lying about a boring task.

Ingroup

Groups we are a part of.

Ingroup bias

Tendency to favor our own group as opposed to the outgroup.

Outgroup homogeneity bias

Tend to perceive individual differences between members of ingroup, but see everyone in outgroup as the same.

Cross-race effect

We are better able to recognize faces that appear to be our own race than others.

Prejudice

Stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and discrimination that are often implicit and people don't detect the harm or discrimination happening.

Ethnocentrism

Prejudicial belief that one's culture is superior to all other cultures.

Just-world phenomenon

The assumption that things in the world happen for a reason and that it is the world's justice.

Attitudes vs. Personality

Personality refers to lasting traits, while attitudes refer to lasting beliefs.

Cognitive dissonance theory

When there is a disagreement between what we do and what we believe, we change our attitudes to reduce the tension that arises from this disagreement.