Global history of architecture 2 - exam 1

Colonialism

- first two centuries it was focused on the competition to develop and exploit the Americas

- this was first for its mineral wealth and then for for its land

- all the European powers also developed trading ports around the world especially in the asias

- the Portuguese and the Spanish created the plantations as the gold and silver began to run out and focused on growing sugar, coffee, and coconuts

- this allowed for sugar to be sold on the streets instead of just to then wealthy

- in other parts of the world the Europeans were focused on setting up trading outposts and also focused on trade with local powers

- its was not unusual for colonies to be lost or gained within war treaties

Plantations

- were usually massive as land was essentially free

- large tracts of land under single control mena that large amounts of cash crops could be produced efficiently

- issue was larbor for these plantations

- origionally tbey were worked by the plantations ownrs but that was a very economically poor propositions

- the solution yo this was fhe african slave as they were easy to obtain andc they were in a foregn land had no hope of ever making it back

- the idea that African labor could be owned was only developed as an institution on the British plantations in Virginia

Enlightenment

- a philosophical movement challenged the arbitrariness of power and attitudes toward "primitive cultures"

- is tried to imagine new civil and institutional models in tune with new thinking about the rule of law, even though it did not reject colonialism as such

Haciendas

- Spanish crown granted Hernan Cortes the title of marquis offer valley of Oaxaca, also gave him the natives that lived on the land as well as power over their life and death

- eventually became the primary mean so f export production. And in some cases the core of urban developments

- haciendas come in various sizes, the word being derived old parish and Latin terms that mean to make something

- most haciendas specialized in two products and they were always a export based cash crop

- they were often made remote from metropolitan centers so they often had to accommodate a wide range of functions, they had their own cemeteries, jails, and marketplaces as well as residential places

- the layout followed a scheme involving different courtyards for different uses

- the Portuguese version; of haciendas eventually added the senzala, or slave quarters as the need for African slaves became bigger

- the masters house was usually located on one side and raised up to view the entire area

New European and colonial urban culture

- the consumption of coffee was initially associated with subversive political activity, the social significance derived from the fact that it was consumed in public by an exclusively male clientele

- this was done in a new establishment called the coffeehouse

- when coffee started being grown in plantations, it was able to be sold at a ,icy cheaper price and became more easily accessible

- by 1800 there were more than 3000 coffee houses in England

- when tobacco was brought, smoking was taken up by men of the upper class, they thought it enhanced their reasoning capabilities, from this smoking rooms emerged

- the concept of tea time cause dinner to be pushed back further in the day, and drinking coffee and eating chocolate in the morning;g soon became known as breakfast

The louvre

- the first major colonial export form America was fur, and it became the new fashion requirement for the elites

- the money flowing into France created an inflations that made the poor more poor

- Louis le Vau started updating the louvre into an urban palace in order to accommodate Henry vi, he worked in collaboration with Claud Perrault, a competition was held to design the east facade

- the ground floor served a a podium for the main floor as it was very plain with minimally detailed windows

- a central pedimented projection was integrated and the ranges of coupled freestanding columns helped to form a screen for the building behind

- the columns carry straight entablatures that are actually a series of disguised arches held together in part by tie rods

Konditors

- called a sugar course, created by the Germans, and was a on entire meal that was replicated in sugar for guests to nibble on before the real meal was brought out for them to eat

- was created for ladies and formed the counterpart to the bars for men

The hotel by the lourve

- with Henry moving to Paris, the wealthy wanted to live as close to the Parisian court as possible but on,y temporarily, thus the hotel was created

- it's a temporary lodging that is designed around a series of spaces

- a Porte cochere allowed for carriages to enter the cour d'honneur where the ritual of arriving and entering was played out

- the staples were off to the side and the corps de logos where people stayed faced the court

- the the rear of this was the garden which may have had a gallery room for displaying art and conversing

- all public rooms were on the main floor, the residential areas above them, and the servants lived under the roof

- symmetry was preferred for arrangement/layout

- most hotels were relatively isolated for each other as they were being built wherever land was available

- most also had an absence of corridors and they eventually became integrated into packages called royal squares

Chateau de Versailles

- the problem of what to do with the old building was solved by wrapping a new building around it

- the old structure is now embedded within a new structure that consists of a series of forecourts that create a telescoping u around a central court

- processional avenues leading to the chateau were central to the spectacle and ceremony of the design, the north and middle ones were the only ones that lead to paris, the southern one was built only for symmetry

- all but the most distinguished has to ride on horses or by foot up to the last of the house after the second gate

- the ground floor was mainly for royal guards and administrators, with one room being for the reception of visitors

- the kings bedroom was not a private room, it was an area where he met with friends and important dignitaries

- the gardens were originally used for traditional uses but louis XIV introduces garden celebrations that included horsemanship, banquets, plays, music, and fireworks

- these events were part of the kings publicity and propaganda

- its completion prompted imitation by other european royals

St. Petersburg

- the fortress of peter and paul was built here to safeguard Czar peters access to the baltic sea after he reestablished order, modernized russia, and pulled the country out of its isolation

- st. Petersburg became an instant religious and secular center after the monastery there was named after st alexander nevsky and relics were sent there

- masonry construction was banned throughout russia during this period in order to speed up the building process

Winter palace

- its present for was designed by bartolomeo rastrelli, he imagined its twin facades as elizabethan baroque facades, one facing the square and the other facing the neva river

- the windows of the lowest stories are taller than the rest and separated by a pilaster, the plan is an elongated rectangle with an enclosed court

- most of the building was used for courtly functions, the apartments for the royal family were towards the back

- was eventually extended to add a new private wing to hold an extensive art collection

Rationalization and the age of reason

- the success of the french, dutch, and english economic efficiency lay in combining absolutism with highly rationalized governmental processes and investment in national knowledge base

- during this period jean-baptiste colbert founded the royal academy of science and the academy of architecture to serve and advise government administrators and ministers

- the work of early scientists and philosophers of this age was also the search for the underlying processes and rules that defined the apparent ad hoc phenomenon of the world

- the rationalist world was conceived in the crucible of the colonial experience since it was condemned by the catholic church for going against god

observatoire de paris

- colbert realized the key to colonial dominance was precise knowledge of astronomy, this initiated the construction of observatoire de paris

- the french meridian ran through it and it was the basis of french nautical maps that was in competition with the meridians at greenwich and antwerp

- the architect was claude perrault, his brother was secretary to colbert

- there were no orders, no columns, and no pilasters, there were simple string courses the demarcated the stories and the openings were slightly recessed or surrounded by slight moldings

- each side of the octagonal corner towers was aligned with the suns position at solstices and equinoxes, the eastern one being unroofed for the telescope

- the roof was used as a platform from which astronomical measurements could be made

- a hole in the center of the floors of the main chamber allowed the suns zenith to be calculated

Hotel des Invalides

- the hotel des invalides served to address the problem of soldiers who lived their lives at war struggling to adjust to civilian life

- it served as a military dormitory

- behind the moat and entrance lies a large court, and buildings to the left and right are grouped around smaller courts

- the northern facade is in typical french fashion with central and end pavilions that project forward, there are no columns or pilasters on the main facade

- there were special areas for sick and wounded soldiers, for pauper soldiers, and a barracks for old vetrans

- there were also surgery halls and mess halls

- other hospitals were simpler and less grand in comparison

Hospitals in 1700 CE

- hospitals had first appeared in Europe as a by product of pilgrimages and the crusades, they started to get flooded by the poor and indigent and plagues and epidemics started to spread among them

- due to the hospitals being linked to religious orders and charitable institutions made it hard to distinguish between a hospital, a pesthouse, or a poor house

- poor people were scared to leave their houses for a hospital because they were scared their property would be pillaged and their income threatened

Chelsea Hospital

- shows the first awareness of french innovation regarding the problems of former soldiers

- designed by sir christopher wren, the cells were placed in ranges back to back, at the end was a larger room set out for sergeants

- the wards faced each other across a courtyard open to the thames river, with a great hall and chapel linking the wards at the far end

- the governor and lieutenant governor lived in detached quarters

Johann Balthasar Neumann and the New Neresheim

- bavaria germany withstood reformation and was resistant to the aristocratic urban catholicism of austria, created a new style of church without the dome

- Neumanns most extraordinary work was the church of vierzehnheiligen, it had become a pilgrimage church following what was said to be a miraculous apparition

- His last and most comprehensively concieved work was the church of neresheim

- it was integrated into the fabric of a benedictine monastery and includes a choir end an old tower from an early romanesque church

- the exterior of the shell was plain, the piers and columns at a right angle to the nave eliminated the need for a solid continuous outer surface

- the central oval stretches along the nave and is counter balanced by smaller ovals the evoke the tradition of the transept without interfering with spatial liturgical rituals

China and the European enlightenment

- many jesuits became trusted members of the qing court and were given important positions like control of the board of astronomy because of their strong interest is education and high levels of education

- the chinese political system was studied and cited many times when Europeans were beginning to develop alternatives to monarchic and church procedures in their own system

- particular interest was drawn to the divine mandate and that when things when wrong it was a symbol that the mandate was rejected

- it became their aim to create an enlightened despotism that would rule for the benefit of the people as a whole

The gongyuan and the jinshi

- the gongyuan was the administrative yard in the forbidden city where the highest exams for entering the imperial bureaucracy were held

- admittance into the mandarin cadres required 3 levels of examinations, the first in local counties, second in provincial capitals, and the third in the national capital, those who passed all three earned the title jinshi

- the gongyuan was a huge walled structure with cells laid out in straight rows to prevent cheating, candidates were still searched and carefully supervised

- the lucky ew who passed this test were allowed into the forbidden city where they took another exam and only the top three were accepted into the jinshi

- european enlightenment thinkers were looking for a more egalitarian merit based model to replace their old one, wanted the idea of civil service to be selected via competitive exams and open to anyone

Stowe Gardens and the Temple of British Worthies

- Sir william temple is credited with originating the concept of british picturesque stroll garden which much like the chinese garden relies on irregular movement and studied asymmetry for effect

- the stowe gardens projected a vision of harmony and the "natural" proportions of the classical orders and was transformed into an instrument of nationalist consciousness

- the key to the gardens was that they could be experienced not only by their owners and friends but also by a larger range of upper and middle class people

- the idea of a harmonic natural landscape, however artificially contrived, designed around a dignified, civilizational armature, arguably also parallels the English colonial experience in the Americas

Sans Souci

- through the writings and studying of many books that gave the history of china, many european courts began to adopt certain chinese themes in their gardens

- the construction of the trianon de porcelain was mostly western in appearance but had a tiled roof that was supposed to an aproximation of the nanjing pagoda, it set in motion a series of chinese styled pavilions

- the sans souci palace in potsdam served as the emperors summer retreat and has a vast park of pavilions one of which being the chinese teahouse

- it has life sized gilt chinese figures at the base of the columns playing musical instruments and engajing in conversation and the columns are in the form of palm trunks

- this became a common thing to see in pleasure gardens of the time

Qing Beijing

- silver became the alternative to ming printed currency which resulted in drastic inflation, prices rose and the poor went hungry as they cou9ld not pay

- the manchu took over the ming dynasty without having to fight for it since there was multiple conflicts with bandits at the same time

- one of their firsts acts was to establish a strong regulatory framework for costal trade then to establish internal order

- they kept a firm grip on central administrative control but tolerated multiple religious and cultural practices

- all decrees started to be issued in multiple languages after a pan-asian conception of an empire was adopted

- beijing became the all important center of the empire, they also expanded mukden by building new palaces, tombs, and institutions of governance, nanjig became the center of jesuit missionary activity

- To stamp their identity onto the city, the Manchu renamed all the major gates and pavilions and changed the ceremonies associated with the Temple of Heaven to reflect the new Manchu cosmic order

- the southern city developed into the commercial heart of the city after all the han chinese had to move there, they built new temples and monasteries, theaters, teahouses, academies, etc.

Beihai

- a white bell shaped stupa was built to commemorate the fifth dalai lama visting beijing

- it was placed on the highest point of the artificial hill on the island so that it would be visible from a distance

yuanmingyuan

- the summer retreats of the yuan, jin, and ming were turned into huge garden palace complexes that has waterways and reservoirs that helped to distribute water to the area

- the distribution of the palaces and pavilions were more relaxed even though they were similar to the axial courtyard structures of other palaces

- om the middle of the eastern half's fuhai lake there were 3 small interconnected islands that represented of the 3 mythical islands on the immortals

Joseon Dynasty of Korea

- koreans adopted the chinese bureaucracy complete with the system of exams

- pyoungsan academy was a private confucian high school for the sons of that regions yangban elite, it was erected in honor of ryu seaon-ryong who served as prime minister during the destructive invasions led by the japanese

- the building was modeled on a chongjas

- the views center on the spot where the teacher would sit with windows showing the landscape

Mallas of Nepal

- after islamic invaders occupied northern india, fleeing hindu priests, royalty and merchants added a new hindu layer to nepalese culture and civil policy

- munder the malla, the durbar square grew in importance when royal palaces and temples were added to it

- the eastern edge held a string of palaces and the western side held several freestanding temple and small shrines

Kyoto's Odoi and Shimabara

- the tokugawa redesigned the imperial city of kyoto to meet the strictures of the bakufu code and to define their own identity

- a new north/south road was cut through the old blocks, this opened up new street frontage which was occupied by commercial establishments and houses, was also used to stage important processions in visually competitive displays of strength between shogun and emperor

- All forms of internal enclosures and fortifications were then demolished, erasing all signs of the localized authorities. Some of the major Buddhist temples were moved to outside the city walls, especially to the eastern hills.

- The members of the aristocracy were relocated to the peripheries of the imperial palace. Special quarters for

the lowest classes—the eta and the hinin—were designated at the margins of the city.

- the shimbara became the place that prostitutes were confined to, some of the places adopted architectural details befitting of the higher class people that visited them on the interior while keeping the exterior simple

Edo (Tokyo)

- it was conceived as a spiral with accommodations made for geography, it was developed with both security and symbolism in mind

- it has 32 gateways guarding the lines of approach to the center, their locations correlating with the 12 signs of the zodiac which is integral to the chinese astrological and calendrical system

- each class was placed in a different section of the city

Nayaks of Madurai

- they continued treating temples as surrogate courts

- the Meenakshi sunderesvara temple has two main shrines one dedicated to shiva and the other to his wife

- the temples main deity is meenakshi (shivas wife) the local regional goddess important to the tamils and its her path to the shirne that has all the important historical locations along it

- the lotus tank is the mythical origin of the temple

- has a bunch of enclosures that nestle a divers array of functional and ceremonial spaces all designed to accomodate the temples diverse civic and religious functions

- the lowest caste was not allowed into the temple, the elaborate annual procession that celebrates her wedding is over a 19 day period and is meant to be visible to all

- it is decorated with a myriad of vividly painted mythical deities and creatures

- the figurative representation of the mandalic universe was expaned to encompass the geography of the entire city

Jaipur

- Maharaja of amer modernized his forts defenses to better withstand artillery and invested in large about or artillery as well

- because of this amer quickly emerged as a strong and stable regional power with highly productive trade routes and commercial activity

- a new city was built called jaipur and he put architect vidyadhar the head of his building department in charge of building it

- he built a master plan of the city expanding outward in blocks from the existing garden, this gave him five additional

squares and he added another one at the other end of the city

- around the boundary he built a wall, not strong enough to withstand artillery fire but high enough to designate the urban boundary

- jaipur had a very strong urban street picture with merchant shops lining the streets and main avenues, it attracted merchants from the declining mughal cities

Nurosmaniye Mosque, Istanbul

- in 1703 ahmed III moved the capital of the ottoman empire back to istanbul which precipitated a major building boom

- the architecture looked to external influences to generate new architectural expressions

- the mosque combined a standard centralized domed plan with an unusually wide, highly fenestrated facade under a massive arch

- A tightly clustered sequence of engaged pillars with capitals that unexpectedly merged with the cornice are complemented by European Baroque details such as scrolls, shells, cable and round moldings, engaged pillars, and fluted capitals.

The Anglican Church

- the church was created when king henry viii dissolved the catholic monasteries and abbeys in order to annul his marriage to his wife

- it maintained many liturgical similarities to the catholic church

- The rebuilding of the 80 churches that burnt down became an opportunity to place a strong Anglican imprint on the city

- the church functioned as an extension of the interests of the ruling class, Sir Christopher wren was asked to design almost all of the churches

- when st pauls cathedral was burned down he wanted to rebuild in the up to date styles, It was rejected for a more conventional plan, the church fathers accepted the modern exterior but insisted on a medieval-style section, with low side aisles and a tall nave

- To create the impression of height so that the inner and outer dome appear to match, the columns supporting the dome lean toward the center

- Anglicanism placed considerable emphasis on the dignity of the service as prescribed in the Book of Common Prayer

- The palette of their interiors was restrained; almost everything was white, with a few accents

St. Mary Woolnoth

- Hawksmoor's design process emphasized esoteric historical and philosophical meanings, it spoke to a generation of designers the attempted to distance itself from amateur architects

- questioned the normative production of aesthetic ideals as public spectacles

- The two columns flanking the entrance are esoteric references to the Temple of Solomon

- The double-tower front facade appears to be two buildings stacked on top of each other, the entirety surmounted by two symmetrically placed small bell housings

- Anglican theologians of the day were also interested in the Second Temple of Solomon as a way to reconnect to both biblical authenticity and the ethos of early Christianity

- The upper portico was a reference to the Mausoleum of Halicarnassus, one of the seven ancient wonders of the world, which had been destroyed

Whigs

- Walls were usually of unadorned brick, and windows and doorways were framed in wood painted white. Facades were symmetrically arranged around the ground-level entrance or, on occasion, accessed by a short flight of steps. Grander houses might have a portico, pilasters, or corner quoins

- the georgian style rose out the the protestant ethic of nondemonstrative simplicity, functional and serviceable it was adopted by the mercantile class

Palladian Revival

- vitruvious britanicus by colen cambel argued the superiority of antiquity over what he argued were the affected and licentious forms of the Baroque

- sparked a movement that invested a great deal of energy in substantiating the idea of the primacy of the natural law of proportion

- Facade, plan, and volume had to be unified into a formal whole, the external detailing had to adhere closely to Palladio's own works

- Palladian motifs also became common in the palaces on the Strand, Palladian orders took on the authority of a prime source

of classicism and influenced many designs

Touro Synagogue, Newport

- Religious tolerance and separation of church and state were not part of the puritans core ideology, which produced many dissenters

- In response, Williams founded his own colony in Providence, Rhode Island, in 1636, with religious tolerance as one of its

pillars.

- By using pattern books, taking grand tours of Italy, and learning drafting skills, Harrison became America's first trained architect and a strong advocate of the principles of neo-Palladianism as the appropriate expression of the new ideals of the time

- The twelve columns supporting the women's galleries on the

interior represent the twelve tribes of Israel. They are each made of a single tree trunk; the lower ones are Ionic, and the upper ones Corinthian, there were no pews

- Instead, the floor at the center was reserved for a table for the reading of the law. The men sat along the perimeter on the ground floor, and the women above in the balconies

Shirley Plantation, Virginia

- neo-Palladianism was the style of choice for the great houses of the slave-based plantations of Virginia

- The plantation mansion shared a kinship with Palladio's villas in that both were based on farming

- It had a two-story portico with Doric columns on two sides of the house, so as to present an entrance for both visitors arriving by the James River and those arriving by land, on the plantation side

- The house was surrounded by eleven supporting buildings, also of brick, arranged symmetrically on a 4-meter grid each having their own purpose

1800 CE Introduction

- The European Enlightenment, particularly its emphasis on nature, science, reason, and egalitarianism, circulated in the colonial world and eventually captured the global imagination

- Two major social revolutions— the American and the French—translated the Enlightenment into political form, creating new democracies that charted the path, however circuitous and fitful, that led to the decline of the monarchic institution

- The utopianism of the Enlightenment was generally tempered, if not co-opted outright, by the lingering traditions of aristocratic

privilege. This produced an architecture generally known as Neoclassical

- Classicism, which had started during the Renaissance as a quest to relearn from a lost past, now emerged as a claimant to a privileged cultural imperative, the roots of which came to be castigated as Eurocentrism

- The German Romantic movement envisioned nature as a manifestation of the divine

- classicism was challenged by more trenchant critiques that sought evermore pristine origins for architecture—in nature, primitive civilizations, or universal "science."

German Romantic Movement

- The German Romantic movement envisioned nature as a manifestation of the divine

- Goethe and Schiller linked nationalism to the ideals of ancient Greece, giving the German movement a different tenor than the nationalism of France, which emphasized the idealization of political institutions and social arrangements

Qing Dynasty china (1800CE)

- the Qianlong Emperor, aimed to create a pan-Asian empire, unified around the Indic origin ideal of chakravartin. He declared several religions and languages official

- The Qianlong Emperor's purposeful use of imitation in constructing his new capital city, Chengde, was driven by the ideological innovation of constructing a vision of China as the center of a pan-Asian world

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Tash- Khovli

- the old land-based Silk Route was in decline that one of the ways in which profit was extracted from it was by raiding, enslaving, and reselling traders who still plied that route.

- Khiva became the site of a notorious slave market.

- tash-khovi was built is the eastern half of the city

- The southernmost is the receiving yard, where important visitors would be met; in the middle is a yard for entertainment; and the last and most private yard was occupied by the harem.

- the outside walls of the palace were left plain, but the walls of the courtyards were decorated with blue and white majolica tile. The wooden pillars have distinctive bulbous bases carved with geometrical and plant decorations, and the ceilings are painted in a golden-red color

Pre Modern recap + 1600 CE

- pre modern: axial hierarchy + mutual service, thought to be analogous to order of human soul, mutual service brought people to highest virtue of essential nature

- can raise essential nature through building things, designing appropriately was a duty, connects architecture to cosmos + social hierarchy

- intentions are transcendental and beyond, bearing witness is a sense of reflecting order of world

- form + function are not conceptualized, trying to frame worldview (spiritual)

Christianity start to break up in the 15-1600 CE

- council of trent set up (Barque), brought church leaders together, tries to outline the role of art in architecture

- jesus, mary, and saints are depicted more intentionally, hope was to revitalize catholic congregations, connections to antiquity and modernity, rational basis of reality + attempting to seduce people back to the religion

- rood screen removed acter council, altar becomes ore visible to common public

- barque supposed to be totalizing, sculpture, architecture, painting all blurred together

- santa sindone (italy), dome geometrically constructed with circles and lines, windows in dome are hidden, sanctuous qualities being foregrounded

- st ivo (italy), dome has complicated geometries

Modernity is not modernism

- modernism is stylistic and aesthetic, modernity is a period of time and condition of being in the world, unevenly distributed across the globe, modernized at different rates

- modern social imaginary, new practices + institutional forms, new ways of living, new forms of malaise (alienation, meaninglessness)

- people become more secular + instrumental rationality

Great Dissembedding

- is a process of disenchantment of the cosmos, axial society starting to fall apart, leads to secular individualism

- pre modern: what does this mean?

- post modern: how is this happening?

- no other legitimizing reference beyond what is in society, secular basis not religious, society believed to be lateral (citizen not subject)

Modernity

- death of myth, collapse of cosmological system ruling metaphor of reality is mechanism

- rational thought over lived experience, truth through mathematical knowledge, instrumental knowledge rises to special status

- once stable design discourse no longer clear, how/why of design no longer clear, more interesting architecture but potentially arbitrary

- more design issues to work out

ancients vs moderns (no church ties)

- ancients: can only imitate past, cant do better than past

- moderns: learned antiquity was never Enlighted to equal our times, way better than past

- authority of the past + the nature of human progress

Claude Perrault

- modern side, idea was to take cartesian worldview to architecture, rationalize architecture, theory proven in practice in world of physics and matter

- encyclopedia is dissecting different things down to parts, could be architecture to animals to craftsmanship

- starts to undercut historical architecture

- entasis is all about adjusting proportions to improve lived experience, Perrault calls them errors, 1 to 1 representation, drawing is equal to reality

Enlightenment (lecture notes)

- emphasized mathematical reason, individualism over myth + tradition, its knowledge would improve human life but still caused various problems, upended many modes of theory and practice

- number of theories and architecture works increase rapidly, once stable discourse was profoundly questioned, architecture was more interesting but more arbitrary

encyclopedia ( denis diderot + jean d'alembert)

- trying to catalogue all existing knowledge rationally and systematically

- not industrialized, small scale things only, breaks a whole into parts to analyze

Sir Isaac Newton

- push of tradition (church) vs modernity

- Newtonian understanding was that wonder appears as the simple rationality of nature, ambiguous to mathematical nature

- newtons methods: test + measure, theoretical questions to measured phenomena answers

stuart + revett

- apply a mathematical basis to architecture, greek architecture becomes a style to be measured,

- can understand architecture if the math is understood, greek symbolism starts to be lost

- publish the antiquities of athens, first accurate survey of athens, eliminating experience for rationality

M.A. Laugier

- is in response to Perrault, gessoist priest turned benedictine

- wrote the essays on architecture, published in paris anonymously, very popular, there needs to be reform in architecture, theory to practice is a problem

- against excess ornamentation, attempts to outline principles of architecture, tries to translate newtons language into architecture

- starts to realize stories are important, principles of architecture are drawn from the primitive hut as its closest to nature, does not exist in architecture, creating a story

- not challenging social hierarchy

primitive hut

- trees become columns, performative understanding of the column, stands on its own, holds weight, structural importance

- imitate or decline (ancients argument)

- raises the argument on what is appropriate

- takes decorum of work and how it matches to society

- building quality related to rank of people living in them

Giovanni Piranesi

- doesn't just draw mathematically, draws from antiquities, reimagines roman buildings, sees enlightenment as a problem

- known as an engraver

- produced a series of imaginative prisons called carceri, multi perspective + cinematic space, "trapping the eye"

- architecture can only exist culturally on paper

- drawings of rome give good sense of what rome used to look like, still non perspectival, created/invented plans of rome based around existing buildings

J.G. Soufflot

- takes up laugiers model of nature, studies actual greek architecture, ignoring italian tradition

- st genevieve, patron saint burried here, was originally a church

- soufflot starts basis that architecture is related to nature, attempted to calculate the loads of the building, trying to maximize volume + minimize materials, ignores the crafts people

- building starts to collapse during construction, no coeff for material impurities

- attempting to create gothic cathedral on the inside, "forest" of columns

- windows get covered for structural stability

- mathematical reason extended too far too soon

Indole (Carlo Lodoli)

- inherent nature

- in architecture: focused on nature of materials

- in teaching: focused on nature of students

- way to architecture is through materiality

Industrial revolution (lecture notes)

- ideas + industrialization erupts into revolution and violence, old hierarchy no longer fits

- starts in england due to stable government + economy, abundant resources, labor + colonial empire, capital + technology

- development of factories

- beginning of climate change

renaissance to 1750's (architectural revolution)

- invention of perspective, no presumption that we see in perspective yet, this is now known to not be true, becomes systemized with mathematics and science, surveying begins to take place

- starts to get collapsed into architecture, eg flat space into dome through perspective painting, stage set used to be in one point perspective for sovereigns

- the bibiena brothers use two point perspective in theaters, democratizes space, suggests equalization

descriptive geometry (G. Monge)

- kept as military secret until 1790's, uses systematic procedures to represent 3d objects on 2d surfaces, visualize and understand, scaled + constructable design, commensurate (proper portion)

- becomes basis + tool that helps Perrault's theorization, 1:1 paper space to build space

- cartesian coordinate system, space is identical everywhere, earth becomes "dead entity"

development of aesthetic (Baumgarten 1739)

- a science of sensory knowledge, logic is of mind and perceived is of body, does not have same standing as logical knowledge, based in pleasure or displeasure

- maintains gap between body + mind, subjugates lived sense of world, becomes a matter of taste

- le petite maison ( the little house), story where architecture becomes a sort of character, architecture works along with + adds to the story

development of romanticism ( Berlin + Jena, Germany)

- rebels against rationalism and offered a new understanding of the world

- Pantheistic (many gods), Rejected nature as mechanistic

- Rejected mind-body split of Descartes and wanted to unify self (e.g., emotions are a way to understanding rather than barrier)

- Nature resonates in the human being (nature is not opposed to human)

- Nature is ever changing and developing towards higher forms

- Creative expression offers way of striving to true form of the self

- Humans & cosmos are connected (poetry reveal and strengthens this connection)

- Poetic expression develops towards ideal of freedom (autonomy)

- Romantic hope is to reconnect to higher, deep, richer unity in the future

- Irony (unity may never be attainable but the joyful path and challenge are what matters)

- aims at symbolic access, is a language of insight + self realization

The Nolli Map of Rome, (Giambattista Nolli)

- maps all of existing old parts of rome

- first accurate plan of rome

- every square inch of rome is measured

- took 6-7 years

Jean-Laurent LeGeay

- creates imaginary views like piranesi

- this becomes an architectural tradition

- his imaginary views include aspects of nature and architecture and are very busy

Boullee

- designs fashionable mansions, says they are false art and that architecture may be false

- thinks his real works are his drawings

- designs the cenotaph to newton, is a tomb without the body (memorial), trying to symbolize cosmos in Newtonian terms in its totality

- inside dome is punctured to suggest stars of cosmos, really dark inside

- each drawing is slightly different (poetic drawings, sort of irony to work)

C.N. Ledoux (aristocratic architect

- still in times where proper city has wall, asked to design a series of toll gate, stripped down neoclassicism, seen as "symbol of oppression" and gets destroyed

- seen as revolutionary architect (not true), was imprisoned during french revolution, career is over when he gets out

- invents, draws, and writes about imaginary spaces (ex city of chaux), royal salt works is a part of the city that never got built, narrative to the work

- naming of something adds to narrative of space (program)

Jean Jacques Lequeu

- draws himself as man/woman, making things sexual and erotic

- programs embedding narratives

- fascinated with ability to communicate through architecture and details, agnostic to cultural locations

- speaking architecture is a way to figure out what is and is not appropriate

Historicism

people trying to recover the past without any of the culture

breakdown of axial hierarchy with revolutions

- old order is no longer applicable

- american, hatian, french revolutions

- self government develops

- nationalism grew

French revolution

- chops kings head off, idea was suggesting a separation of church and state

- if dome represents vault of heaven, state buildings should no longer have dome, "lop" it off

- development of equality, fraternity, and liberty ideals, can be taken to extremes

architectural theory becomes positivistic and dictates to practice

- engineering becomes new aristocracy, creates productive + measurable results, improves aspects of life, can lose aspects of social + cultural values

- Positivism: every rationally justifiable assertion can be scientifically verified through math + logical proof

world shifting to autonomous, objectified, and dead

- becomes and it vs a thou

- consequences of the shift to the scientific revolution

JNL Durand

- studied under boulie, very different cultural understanding, teachings directed at new aristocracy

- teaching Perrault is right, he understands him

- uses a mechanism of composition (grid), sets up a super quick + super effective system, throws out social + cultural agenda of architecture, point of architecture is to just create pleasure

- 3 determinates of architectural form, construction (material properties), economic efficiency (value for money), fashion (what style client wants)

Sir John Soane

- very skilled + has many awards + climbs social hierarchy, works at bank of england

- builds from tradition of neoclassicism, has some Piranesi values

- picks up idea of cult of ruins( thinks about things in big arc of time), starts to build and imagine how things would be thought about in the future

- was a collector of things that he could use in his teachings, stored in his house (soane house museum), experiments with forms, light, and spaces, adds many mirrors, weird imagined depth and presence

Industrialization

- development of new programs, what do you do with them?

- cult of ruin + historicism, development where buildings are built from scratch from medieval fabric, could be neoclassic, gothic, neogothic, etc

- strawberry hill, london (henry walpole), build as a matter of higher taste, creates a kind of hierarchy for architecture

A.W.N. Pugin

- tries to take argument of taste + style and injects a religious morality to it

- was obsessed with religion and churches

- true principles of pointed architecture (book), only roman catholic can produce gothic architecture, all ornament should consist of structure of building, everything not gothic is pagan

- gothic revival opens door to purism

Henry Labrouste

- won a rome prize during studies, can travel to rome to study the city, studies paestum

- temple of hera (reconstruction) paestum, draws section cut through columns, emphasizes back wall, draws the graffiti on the wall, makes case that architecture arrives with social use, not just based on proportions

- young architects flock to him

- national library, Paris, Henri Labrouste

- imagined as a project with no precedent, internal heating, lights , fireproofing

- has names of books once held in it, tells progressive history of knowledge

- iron starting to be used in cultural program instead of in utilitarian ways, tries to illustrate knowledge in response to victor hugo (said books will kill communicative capacity of buildings)

- arch motif supposed to look like open book

iron becomes a largely used material

- can span long distances, used a lot in train stations

- hybris system (suspension bridge/cable stayed bridge), brooklyn bridge used this

Crystal Palace, london

- international exhibition is its primary use, built of iron and glass

- case was made that this was not architecture because it was stripped down to utilitarian use

- structural members were painted, blurs together the colors at a distance, trying to cultivate optical phenomena

- light, airy, and open, spindly columns, multi level, sense of bringing nations together

Vile le-duc

- does a lot of conservation in paric, very interested in neogothic, architects must learn from past but account for new technology + materials

Polychrome Debate

- winkleman, architectural antiquity was white (rooted in race, greeks are white and so are their buildings), models of eternal beauty, should emulate

- semper + hit, reconstructing architecture in color through drawings, very rare that civilizations did not paint structures

Gottfried Semper

- 4 elements of architecture(book), tries to explain the origins of architecture, rooted in traditional craft of ancient barbarians

- hearth: metallurgy + ceramics

- roof: carpentry

- enclosure: textile + weaving

- mound: earthwork

- makes case that first civilization is organized around the hearth, moral element of architecture

- using this to justify aspects of architecture, trying to find unifying theory of architecture

K.F. Shinkle

- greek revival, Altes Museum in Berlin

- miming the pantheon, super logical + clear plan, interior is typical of era, side is basically blank

University of Virginia rotunda, Virginia

- model of slave plantation as a university

- rotunda also modeled after pantheon

- serpentine wall, is structural because it snakes, is a single width of brick

John Ruskin

- most important art critic of the day, travels to Venice, documents the city trough garcetype photos

- Stones of venice (book), talks about foundation and eras of architectural history

- neogothic architecture was height of venice, workers had some level of autonomy

William Morris

- Founder of the Arts and Crafts movement. This movement rejected mass production of products and sought to revitalize careful hand production of goods.

- wants small guilds that work on things

- card carrying socialist

jaipur and the end of the mughal empire

- a number of Mughal governors, particularly the Rajput ones, either moved toward independence or declared independence

outright

- Since the 10th century, Amer had existed as a fortress town guarding an important pass on a trade route linking western India to Delhi. Amer palace, located halfway up a hill, consisted of a series of interconnected courtyards protected by a fort

- The city was laid out on a grid to create a series of square neighborhoods divided by major arterials. Public amenities and market hubs were located at the intersections, called chokris

- The main east-west street was laid out to visually align on axis with temples located on nearby hilltops

- Sawai Jai Singh's observatories were based on similar ones

built by Ulugh Beg in the 15th century in Samarkand, only these were larger, and since they were spread apart, their observations could be cross-referenced for greater accuracy

- The Hawa Mahall ("Wind Palace"), the structure is essentially a five-story-high screen wall, it was built to enable the women of the royal household to watch festival processions on the street while remaining unobserved themselves

Darbar Sahib

- Founded by Guru Nanak in the 15th century, Sikhism was a mix of Islamic Sufi concepts and Hindu bhakti ideas. Critical of some Hindu practices, it eliminated idol worship and caste distinction and emphasized the unity of God and the necessity of an intimate experience with the divine. The Sikhs offered themselves as an alternative to both Islam and Hinduism and accepted converts from both

- Darbar Sahib, or Golden Temple, had long been an important

place of Sikh pilgrimage and learning, here Guru Arjan Das installed the Granth Sahib, the Sikh holy book after its

compilation

- It sits in the center of a square sacred pool, 150 meters on each side, that is surrounded by a marble walkway (for ritual circumambulation), which in turn is separated from the outside world by buildings that house the various functions of the institution

- the akal takht is where the highest priests have their offices, Every morning the Granth Sahib is ceremoniously carried from the Akal Takh to the Darbar Sahib to be installed; it is returned in the evening

- Its ornamentation and formal outlines are based on Mughal precedents, though the easy informality of their orchestration gives the Darbar Sahib a fluidity of expression associated more with complex Hindu and Jain temples

Wat Pra Kaew

- the Thai learned their Sanskrit and scripture from the Khmer of Cambodia, building several Angkor-inspired temples and stupas

in Ayutthaya

- the Thai sacked Angkor, established as their capital the city

of Bangkok, The new Royal Palace was created as its symbolic core in a compound a few hundred meters from the river's edge.

- The compound is defined by a rectangular perimeter colonnade, with projections in the east and west, that contains a continuous wall fresco, painted on dry plaster, narrating the story of the Ramayana, the Hindu sacred text

- At the center of the compound, on a raised platform running east-west, are three huge closely spaced buildings, a golden stupa, a square sutra repository, and a temple structure known as the Royal Pantheon and a large stone model of Angkor Wat (a model of the cosmos)

- Each building in well established Mahayana Buddhist symbolism

is a representation of the other, and the proximity of each was intended to keep them from being seen as autonomous structures

- The Wat Pra Kaew ("Temple of the Emerald Buddha") stands to the south of the platform. It has a single interior space undivided by partitions, with the Buddha placed at the far end in a resplendent setting, high above human height, enshrined in a small golden temple

Neoclassicism

- Neoclassicism, critics, theorists, and artists called it simply the "true style" that challenged the fluctuations of taste and, particularly, the extravagances of Baroque space,

- shared the Enlightenment's spirit of reform, whether it was scientific advancement in the Age of Reason or the new political philosophy that stressed the principles of a socially regulated

human action, provided a language of stability and order that also reinforced the search for European self-understanding in

the wake of the colonial experience.

- Eurocentrism, the idea that European heritage conferred special standing in the history of civilization

- Adam saw the Roman past as the legitimization of European—and particularly English—civilizational supremacy in a diverse global world, while Piranesi rendered it as a meditative reflection on the short-sightedness of the powers currently in charge.

Selbourne House, London

- Adam's belief in the "true style" meant a rigorous investment in accurate antique precedent, not Renaissance transmissions. He sought to create a totally integrated architectural and spatial environment

- is a combination of Palladio's Villa Foscari and his Palazzo Thiene. The central temple front is set between two-story, three-bay pavilions. A rusticated, false-arcaded ground floor unifies

the composition. The ornamentation of the frieze was taken from the Temple of Concord in Rome.

Romanticism (textbook notes)

- invested in the Middle Ages, rather than Rome, as the more authentic and more emotional home in antiquity

- Strawberry Hill, England (Walpole):

- Walpole was among the first English intellectuals to amass a vast collection of objects from around the world, building in essence one of the first museums

- To hold and display his collection he expanded the existing house and built a library, an armory, a gallery, a "star chamber,"

a "tribune," a sort of shrine, a china closet, bedrooms in several colors, and an oratory

- The structure itself was made in a kind of an experimental Gothic idiom, searching not for a singular expression but playing with the collaging of forms

Laugiet, Rousseau, and the Noble Savage

- the tone in France was more strident, assuming a subtext of

antimonarchism driven in part by an emerging interest in rationalism and legalism and a desire to rethink the role of civic institutions.

- Laugier frowned on the use of pilasters as "fakes" that did not contribute to the actual solidity of the object, He argued that architecture should not be seen as representing a magical transition from the worldly to the heavenly but rather as a medium that told nothing less than the story of the "origins" of

mankind—all mankind

- It was Rousseau who coined the famous term the noble savage to describe the innate nobility of people like the Iroquois.

Essays on Architecture

- it was a flashpoint of discussion about the nature of architectural production

- Laugier's work pointed not to a classical past, but rather to an earlier, "rustic" past, Here we have the beginnings of primitivism in modern art and architecture

- it was not the classical temple as such that needed to be imitated, but that which lay behind its design, the original "rustic hut," or cabane rustique

- This hut, according to Laugier, consisted only of columns, entablatures, and pediments. Vaults, arches, pedestals, and pilasters were not part of that system and, he argued, should therefore not be used. Even arcades, another important element in classical architecture, were listed by Laugier as "abuses

Discourse sur les arts et les sciences (1750) by Jean-Jacques Rousseau

- Influencing Laugier's writings

- Rousseau critiqued what he saw as the naïveté of the Enlightenment's careless atheism. Not only had reason in the hands of the more powerful crushed individual liberty, but it had also replaced simple virtues with a labyrinth of false truths

- The arts and sciences did not lead to knowledge but to hypocrisy, and civilization led to class division, slavery, serfdom, robbery, war, and injustice. The only real progress, he argued, was moral progress

St. Genevieve (Pantheon)

- built by Jacques-Germain Soufflot

- The dome of his St. Geneviève (Paris, 1757)—now known as the

Panthéon—was derived from Bramante's San Pietro in Montorio and is Baroque in its over scaled relationship to the building on

which it rests, the church is a centralized greek cross and modeled after the roman pantheon

- The contrast between the building's severe, cliff-like exterior and the luminous, airy interior was meant to be a literal evocation

of the Enlightenment's transformative power.

- Soufflot adhered to Laugier's call for an architecture in which every element has a structural rationale

Ledoux and Boullee

- Claude Nicholas Ledoux and Étienne- Louis Boullée are often called revolutionary architects, but this is based on their architecture rather than their politics

- Boullée built little after the Revolution, but his place was more secure, and it was his vision that young architects in the Academy of Architecture, where Boullée taught, aspired to emulate

- the history of Neoclassicism took many turns, fusing with the Greek Revival in Germany and Scotland and blending in with the eclectic stylistic preferences of the Victorians

- Ledoux designed a series of gates and tollhouses (tax) for the French crown before the revolution to mark the boundary of Paris and to impress approaching visitors, each different from the rest

- Boullée's buildings have simple geometrical shapes, are monumental in scale, and often serve as backdrops for uncluttered, neo-pagan devotions

Salt Works at Chaux

- Ledoux's plan called for a semicircular arrangement of buildings with the house of the director at the center and the salt-extracting buildings to both sides. The circumference is occupied by storage buildings, with the main entrance to the facility in the circle directly opposite the director's house.

- The security of the salt works was essential due to salt being smuggled and robbed because it was cheaper outside the country, The entrance contained guardrooms and a small prison

- what Ledoux hoped to demonstrate was the advantage of a rational and comprehensive solution to an industrial problem elevated to the level of the symbolic

Cenotaph to Newton

- sphere that represents the earth on the outside is on the inside a planetarium, with small holes forming the constellations.

- The entrance leads to a passageway that opens onto a shrine at the base of the inner void