Earth Science

Weather

The state of the atmosphere at a place and time as regards heat, dryness, sunshine, wind, rain, etc.

Climate

The weather conditions prevail in an area in general or over a long period.

What is the difference between climate and weather?

Climate is the temperature of an area over a long period of time. Weather is the daily temperature; it can change throughout the day.

This past winter was an especially cold and snowy one for parts of the US, Europe and elsewhere. Surely such cold weather flies in the face of global warming?

No, a cold winter doesn't disprove global warming; in fact, a warming Arctic can ironically lead to more extreme winter weather in mid-latitudes like the U.S. and Europe by disrupting the polar vortex, allowing frigid Arctic air to plunge south, while overall global temperatures continue their long-term upward trend.

Why does the weather and climate in different regions vary

Due to latitude, Earth's tilt (seasons), altitude, proximity to water , ocean/air currents (distributing heat), mountain ranges (blocking rain), surface features (urban heat islands, forests), and large-scale patterns like El Niño, with human activities also playing a role in climate change.

Weather or Climate?
Whoa, check out that thunderstorm outside!

Weather

Weather or Climate?
The average rainfall in Calgary today is much higher than when my grandma was in school!

Climate

Weather or Climate?
The heatwave has been going on all week!

Weather

Weather or Climate?
It’s usually cold in Montreal in January, and warm there in June.

Climate

How do humans survive living in areas that have sub zero temperatures?

Through a combination of biological adaptations, behavioral adjustments, and technological advancements in clothing and shelter

How do humans survive living in areas that have extreme high temperatures?

Through a mix of physiological adjustments (sweating, blood vessel dilation) and behavioral/technological adaptations, like wearing loose clothing, finding shade, using water for cooling, staying hydrated, building cool shelters (underground, thick walls), adapting diets, and leveraging modern tech like air conditioning, allowing for gradual acclimation and minimizing exertion during peak heat. 

Describe some ways that you adapt your clothing and your house to keep you in the safe zone?

By choosing appropriate clothing and adjusting how my home is ventilated and insulated, I can maintain a comfortable and safe body temperature despite changes in outdoor conditions.

How does the Sun generate its power?

Through nuclear fusion in its core

What is the approximate spectral composition of the Sun’s radiation before it interacts with Earth’s atmosphere?

50% infrared (IR), 43% visible light, and 7% ultraviolet (UV) radiation. 

Is the amount of solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere constant?

No, the amount of solar energy reaching the top of Earth's atmosphere, called Total Solar Irradiance (TSI) or the solar constant, is not constant.

Are all wavelengths of solar radiation transmitted equally through Earth’s atmosphere?

No, not all wavelengths of solar radiation are transmitted equally through Earth's atmosphere.

How much of life on Earth do you think is reliant on the Sun directly?

Nearly all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on the Sun for energy, primarily through photosynthesis, with exceptions like chemosynthetic organisms near deep-sea vents, but even these benefit from the Sun's heat keeping water liquid;

Describe the atmosphere

Earth's protective blanket of gases, held by gravity, essential for life, containing mostly nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%), along with trace gases like argon and carbon dioxide.

Describe the lithosphere

Earth's rigid, rocky outer layer, comprising the crust and the uppermost, solid part of the mantle, extending about 100 km deep.

Describe the hydrosphere

Earth's rigid, rocky outer layer, comprising the crust and the uppermost, solid part of the mantle, extending about 100 km deep.

True or False
The biosphere is the part of the earth where living things exist

True

True or False
The biosphere only includes the atmosphere and lithosphere

False

True or False

The biosphere includes the hydrosphere

True

True or False

Plants, animals, and humans are all apart of the biosphere

True

True or False

The biosphere is made up of different climate zones

True

True or False

The biosphere is constantly changing due to natural processes

True

True or False

The biosphere is made up of living organisms and their environment

True

True or False

The biosphere includes all the living things on the Earth’s surface

True

True or False

The biosphere includes the poles and the equator

True

True or False

The biosphere is the same in all parts of the world

False

True or False

The biosphere is affected by human activities

True

Compared to the size of the earth, how thick is the atmosphere?

Earth's atmosphere is incredibly thin compared to the planet's size, often compared to the skin of an apple or a thin sheet of plastic on a basketball. The atmosphere might be less than a millimeter thick, while Earth's diameter is about 8,000 miles and its radius is around 4,000 miles. 

What happens to the amount of air the further from the surface you get?

The amount of air decreases

What are the limits of tolerance in the atmosphere?

Temperature and Pressure

List, in order of increasing altitude, the principle layers of Earth’s atmosphere.

Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere, and Exosphere

In which atmospheric layer are almost all water-based clouds formed?

The troposphere

Which atmospheric layer contains the ozone layer?

The stratosphere

What happens to the pressure the deeper you go in the ocean?

Increases significantly and linearly

How far down does light penetrate in the ocean

200 meters (656 feet) for photosynthesis (the sunlight zone)

What limits of tolerance in the ocean?

Light and pressure

How thick is the crust as a percentage of the Earth’s radius?

0.5% to 1%

What is the thickest interior of Earth?

The Mantle

What is the thinnest layer of the Earth?

The crust

What are Earth’s core and mantle made of? How do we know?

Earth's mantle is dense, hot rock (silicates with iron/magnesium), while the core is mostly iron and nickel (liquid outer, solid inner). The characteristics of the core have been deduced mostly from measurements of seismic waves and Earth's magnetic field.

What are the limits of tolerance in the Lithosphere?

Water and temperature

Compare and contrast the terms latitude and longitude

• Latitude measures distance east to west of the equator

• Longitude measure distance north to south of the equator

Define the term equator

An imaginary line drawn around the earth equally distant from both poles, dividing the earth into northern and southern hemispheres and constituting the parallel of latitude 0°.

What is significant about the Prime Meridian compared to the other lines of longitude?

It's the universal starting point for measuring longitude

Compare and contrast the Prime Meridian to the Equator

The Equator marks the center of latitude, whereas the Prime Meridian is the arbitrary starting point for longitude, impacting time zones. Both are crucial imaginary reference lines for mapping 

What is happening to the Earth if the net budget is a positive number?

The Earth is absorbing more energy from the Sun than it is radiating back into space.

What is happening to the Earth if the net budget is a negative number?

The Earth is absorbing more energy (primarily from the Sun) than it is radiating back into space as heat.

Which energy gain number can be influenced by humans?

Energy loss

What is the greenhouse effect?

The process through which heat is trapped near Earth's surface by substances known as 'greenhouse gases.

What chemical compounds contribute to greenhouse warming?

Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and various fluorinated gases. 

Mars and Venus both have high relative concentrations (about 95%) of the greenhouse gas CO2 in their atmospheres. Why is Venus so hot while mars is colder than Earth?

scorching hot due to a runaway greenhouse effect from its incredibly thick, CO2-rich atmosphere and proximity to the Sun, trapping massive heat, while Mars is frigid because its atmosphere is extremely thin, failing to retain heat despite having CO2, and it's much farther from the Sun, receiving less solar energy.

What is global warming?

The increase in the planet's overall average temperature in recent decades.

Albedo

The measure of how much sunlight (solar radiation) a surface reflects, expressed as a scale from 0 (absorbs all light) to 1 (reflects all light).

El Nino

A phenomenon that occurs when unusually warm ocean water piles up along the equatorial west coast of South America.

El Nino- Southern Oscillation

A periodic fluctuation (i.e., every 2–7 years) in sea surface temperature (El Niño) and the air pressure of the overlying atmosphere (Southern Oscillation) across the equatorial Pacific Ocean.

Fetch

The continuous, unobstructed distance over which wind blows across a body of water

Heat Capacity

The amount of heat energy needed to raise the temperature of a substance by one unit

High pressure

Where sinking, cooler, denser air creates greater surface pressure, leading to stable, clear skies and outward-spiraling winds (clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere).

La Nina

The periodic cooling of ocean surface temperatures in the central and east-central equatorial Pacific.

Latent heat of fusion

The energy absorbed or released when a substance changes phase from solid to liquid (or liquid to solid) at its melting/freezing point, without changing temperature

Latent heat of vaporization

The energy needed to change a substance from a liquid to a gas at a constant temperature and pressure, overcoming intermolecular forces without increasing kinetic energy.

Low pressure

Caused by rising air, which leads to converging winds, cloud formation, and often precipitation, resulting in unsettled, stormy weather.

Polar Cell

The smallest and weakest cells, which extend from between 60 and 70 degrees north and south, to the poles. Air in these cells sinks over the highest latitudes and flows out towards the lower latitudes at the surface

Specific heat capacity

The energy needed to raise the temperature of one unit of mass (like a gram or kilogram) of a substance by one degree (Celsius or Kelvin)

State the primary force driving the hydrological cycle

Solar energy

What is a current?

The continuous, predictable, directional movement of seawater driven by gravity, wind (Coriolis Effect), and water density

What are 3 things that cause currents?

wind, water density differences, and gravity.

What are two distinct current systems?

Wind-driven surface currents

What is the dominant pattern of surface circulation?

The gyre

What is the most important cause of surface currents?

The wind

Where are two places where the ocean surface is highest?

Pacific Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean

What are 4 factors that determine the location, size, shape, and direction of a gyre?

Global wind patterns, the Coriolis effect from Earth's rotation, the presence of landmasses, and gravity. 

In the Northern Hemisphere the general direction is

Clockwise

In the Southern Hemisphere the general direction is

Counter-clockwise

What happens to the direction of an ocean current when it approaches the current when it approaches the coast of a landmass?

Northward or southward movement along the coast before rejoining the larger gyre. 

Look at the pattern of cold and warm currents. What seems to determine whether a current carries warm or cold water?

It’s origin’s latitude (near the equator or near the poles)

Describe the impact of ocean currents on climate

Regulate global climate, helping to counteract the uneven distribution of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface.

What is the most significant cause of the surface currents in the ocean?

The wind

What general mechanism is responsible for redistributing heat energy in Earth systems?

Pressure differences in the atmosphere

What drives atmospheric circulation?

The Sun’s uneven heating of Earth

How does atmospheric circulation develop?

From the Sun's uneven heating of Earth, creating temperature and pressure differences

Are the oceans of the atmosphere more efficient at storing energy?

Yes, the oceans are vastly more efficient at storing energy than the atmosphere. Due to the high heat capacity of water and the sheer volume of the oceans, they act as a massive heat reservoir that is essential for regulating the Earth's climate. 

What effect ocean heat capacity has on global temperatures?

Slows down global warming

Give an example of how atmosphere and ocean systems affect each other

Transfer of heat and moisture, which drives weather phenomena and global currents

Other than latitude, what else do you think might affect the air temperature where you live?

Altitude, proximity to bodies of water, prevailing winds, vegetation, and urbanization

What causes the Coriolis Effect?

Earth’s rotation?

What direction is the Coriolis Deflection in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres?

To the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere

What is Insolation?

Incoming solar radiation

How would the intensity of insolation change during the year if the earth were a cube?

The intensity of insolation would change dramatically and abruptly across the surface of the planet throughout the year, primarily driven by the fixed angles of its flat faces relative to the sun.

How does the length of daylight affect the amount of solar energy reaching Earth’s surface?

Longer days and more sunlight

Between what latitudes does the vertical ray strike?

Between the Tropic of Cancer (23.5° N) and the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5° S),

On what days does the vertical ray strike the equator?

The Spring Equinox (around March 20) and the Fall Equinox (around September 22).

Where is intensity of insolation the greatest in Calgary or on the equator? Why?

Is greatest at the equator on an annual average. The sunlight strikes the planet perpendicular to the surface near the equator, but it strikes at an oblique angle near the poles,

How does the intensity of insolation change throughout the year in Calgary? When is the intensity of insolation the greatest and when is it the weakest?

Greatest in June and July and weakest in December and January. Greatest in June and July and weakest in December and January. 

At what time during the day is the intensity of insolation the greatest in Calgary and at the Equator?

Local solar moon

How does the duration of insolation vary throughout the year in Calgary? When do we receive the most hours of day light and when do we receive the least hours of daylight?

Significantly throughout the year due to the tilt of the Earth's axis and the city's northern latitude. The most hours of daylight occurring around the Summer Solstice, and the least hours of daylight occurring around the Winter Solstice.