Psych 100

hell.

p-value

The probability of observing a particular outcome in a sample

level of significance

level that a p-value needs to stay below to reject the hypothesis of random chance being at play

generalizability

whether a sample to create conclusions that can apply to the larger population

random sample

giving every member to the study population a chance to be selected for a study

margin of error 

expected amount of random variation in a statistic 

random assignment

using a probability-based method to divide a sample into treatment groups

cause and effect

whether we say one variable is causing changes in the other variable

data varies

fundamental principle of statistics 

distribution

pattern of variation in data

parameter

numerical result summarizing a population (e.g. mean, proportion)

reliability

the consistency of a measure

sample

the collection of individuals on which we collect data

statistical significance

a result is statistically significant if it is unlikely to arise by chance alone

validity

the degree to which a measure is assessing what it is intended to measure

operational definition

standardized definition of a concept that can be scientifically tested

independant variable

variable researchers manipulate

dependant variable

variable researchers measure

confounds 

elements of an experiment that could compromise your ability to draw conclusions from the data (e.g. not using random assignment, double-blind procedure)

double blind procedure

a way to prevent confounds in which neither a participant nor a researcher knows which condition the participants are in

correlation coefficient

provides information about the direction and strength of the association between 2 variables

quasi-experimental design

an experiment that does not require random assignment to conditions, but is harder to casually infer information

longitudinal study

follows a group of people for a very long period of time 

research methods

should be determined by the researcher based on the question being asked and the resources available to the researcher

third variable problem

where a researcher tries to draw a conclusion between 2 variables, when a third one could be affecting the other two variables

correlation 

measures the association between 2 variables, or how they go together 

experimenter expectations

when what the experimenter hopes will happen affects the study

participant demand

where participants behave in a way they think the researcher wants them to behave 

placebo effect

when receiving special treatment or something new affects human behaviour

internal validity

the degree to which a cause-effect relationship between 2 variables has been unambiguously established 

external validity

the degree to which a finding generalizes from the specific sample and context of a study to some larger population and broader settings 

internal and external validity are difficult to both be achieved in one experiment because

through having internal validity and decreasing the chance of confounds, it makes it harder to apply the results of the study to the general public, and thus one type of validity is typically prioritized over the other 

ecological validity 

the degree to which an effect has been obtained under conditions that are typical for what happens in everyday life 

experience-sampling method

participants report on their momentary thoughts, feelings, and behaviour at different points in time over the course of a day

ecological momentary assessment

methodologies that repeatedly sample participants real-world experiences, behaviour, and physiology in real time 

day reconstruction method (DRM)

participants fully report their experiences of the day and how they were feeling in each situation 

electronically activated recorder (EAR)

participants wear a small, portable audio recorder that intermittently records snippets of ambient sounds around them

white-coat hypertension

phenomenon in which patients exhibit elevated blood pressure in the hospital or doctors office, but not in their everyday lives 

ambulatory assessment 

overarching term that assesses the behaviour, physiology, experience, and environments of humans in naturalistic settings 

linguistic analysis

quantitative text analysis methodology that extracts grammatical and physiological information from a text by counting word frequencies 

full-cycle psychology

scientific approach in which researchers start with a field study, and then use a lab study to corroborate what they found, and then return to the field to verify those effects 

behavioural genetics 

empirical science of how genes and environments combine to generate behaviour and affect one’s actions

the adoption study

compares adopted children to their adoptive and biological parents

twin studies

research method that compares the similarities between identical and fraternal twins

monozygotic twins 

result from a single zygote, identical twins

dizygotic

result from 2 different zygotes, non-identical twins

quantitative genetics

scientific discipline in which similarities among individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are

heritability coefficient

varies from 0 to 1, and is meant to provide a single measure of genetic’s influence on a trait, that is easily misinterpreted 

nature vs. nurture debate 

questions whether traits are passed down or learned 

gene-environment interaction

how genetic differences affect behaviour under some environmental circumstances but not others

epigenetics 

process in which DNA is modified by environmental events, and those genetic changes are then transmitted to children 

evolution

change over time

natural selection

differential reproductive success as a consequence of differences in heritable attributes 

adaptations

traits and behaviours that have evolved over time to increase reproductive success 

sexual selection theory

the evolution of characteristics because of the mating advantage they give organisms 

intrasexual competition

occurs when members of the same sex compete against one another, and the winner gets to mate with the opposite sex

intersexual selection

if members of one sex are more attracted to certain qualities in mates, those qualities are more likely to be passed down

psychological adaptations 

mechanisms of the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction, different from physiological adaptations 

evolutionary psychology is an example of ____________, a theory that takes into account multiple factors when determining the outcome

interactionist framework

error management theory (EMT)

deals with the evolution of how we think, make decisions, and evaluate uncertain situations when there is no clear answer as to how we should behave, and the cognitive biases that lead to our judgements and decisions

visual descent illusion 

people overestimate the distance when looking down from a height, compared to looking up, so that people are more wary of of falling from great heights 

sexual overperception

phenomenon where men misread sexual interest from a women, as the cost of errors through error management theory, has led in the past to missing out on mating opportunities 

gene selection theory

modern theory of evolution by selection by which differential gene replication is the defining process of evolutionary change

sexual strategies theory

comprehensive evolutionary theory of human mating that defines the different types of mating strategies that humans pursue 

gene

DNA sequence that codes for a specific protein or inheritable trait

epigenetics

the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than the changes in the underlying DNA sequence 

phenotype

how the genotype is expressed, and the extent to which it is expressed

epigenome

genome-wide distribution of epigenetic marks

histones

the groups of 8 proteins that DNA wraps itself around

nucleosome

the basic structure of a chromatin, made up of DNA and histones

Chromatin

made up of nucleosomes, and represents a structural solution for maintianing and accessing the tightly compacted genome 

genotype

DNA content of a cell’s nucleus, whether a trait is externally expressed

DNA methylation

epigenetic process that adds a methyl group to a DNA molecule, changing gene activity without altering the DNA sequence itself

DNA nitrogenous bases

adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine

DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs

enzymes that establish and maintain DNA methylation using methyl-group donor compounds or cofactors. The main mammalian DNMTs are DNMT1, which maintains methylation state across DNA replication, and DNMT3a and DNMT3b, which perform de novo methylation.

histone acetyltransferases (HATs)

enzymes that transfer acetyl groups to specific positions on histone tails, promoting an “open” chromatin and transcriptional activation 

histone deacetylases (HDACs)

removes the acetylene groups that were transferred by HATs, and results in a closed chromatin state and transcriptional repression 

modification of histone proteins

compromises an important epigenetic mark related to gene expression

histone acetylation

a type of modification of histone proteins, that is associated with gene activation and increased, associated with HAT enzymes, DNA demethylation, gene activation, and increased gene expression

histone modifications

modifications of the N-terminal (tails) of piston proteins that serve as a major mode of epigenetic regulation

parental investment

how the child is connected to a parent, and how that impacts stress response

rat pups being maternally nurtured through licking and grooming in the 1st week of life leads to long term differences in stress response, emotionality, cognitive performance and reproductive behaviour

demonstrate increased expression of the glucocorticoid receptor in the hippocampus

rat pups that recieved less nurturing in the first week of life

demonstrated decreased histone acetylation and increased DNA methylation of a neuron-specific promoter of the glucocorticoid receptor gene, and overall had a higher hormonal response to stress throughout their lives

early life nutrition influences

epigenetic programming through adult life

changes in histone modifications

influence long-term memory formation by altering chromatin accessibility and expression of genes relevant to learning and memory

DNA sequence mutation for RETT syndrome patients

in a gene called MECP2, which reads DNA sequences, checks for DNA methylation, and binds areas that contain methylation

mice with altered MECP2 gene expression exhibit 

genome-wide increases in histone acelytation, neuron cell death, increased anxiety, cognitive deficits, and social withdrawal 

epigenetic events that alter chromatin structure to regulate programs of gene expression

are associated with depression-related behaviour and action of anti-depressant medications

although twins share a common genotype, their _______ becomes more dissimilar as identical twins age

epigenetic patterns

In rats, increased amount of __________ by the mother rat ______ the expression of the glucocorticoid receptor in the hippocampus (a brain structure associated with stress responsivity as well as learning and memory). This resulted in ________ hormonal response to stress compared with adult animals reared by mothers who engaged in lower levels of this behaviour.

licking, increased, lowered

gene

a specific DNA sequence that codes for a specific polypeptide, protein, or observable trait

auditory perceptual learning

occurs when aspects of our perception of a sound changes as a function of our experience

implicit learning

occurs when we acquire information without intent that we cannot easily express

implicit memory 

type of long-term memory that does not require conscious thought to encode, the type of memory one makes without intent 

non associative learning

a single repeated exposure leads to a change in behaviour

habituation

occurs when the response to stimulus decreases with exposure

sensitization 

occurs when the response to 

dendrites

processes extending from the soma, that branch several times and receives information from other neurons

soma

the cell body of a neuron that contains the nucleus and genetic information, and directs protein synthesis

nucleus 

collection of nerve cells found in the soma that contains genetic information, directs protein synthesis, and supplies the energy and resources the neuron needs to function 

axon

main source of output from the neuron that extends off the soma, and carries action potential