Psyu3339 final exam

At adolescence, self-concept becomes increasingly dependent on:

Close friends

In childhood, self-concept is dependent on

Parents

Natasha's parents have an authoritative child-rearing style. Natasha is like to:

Feel especially good about herself

Annie's parents have an authoritarian child-rearing style. Annie is likely to:

Be very anxious and insecure

What about authoritarian parenting styles leads to anxiety?

High restrictiveness or overprotectiveness

What appears to be the key in authoritative parenting styles for an independent and securely attached child?

High restrictiveness and high warmth let the child develop their own skills and capacities within a controlled and encouraging environment

Research on child-rearing practices indicates that children often suffer from low self-esteem when parents:

Too often help or make decisions for their youngster (high restrictiveness)

Research on child-rearing practices indicates children have unrealistically high self-esteem when parents:

Are overly tolerant and indulgent

Research on peer victimisation shows:

a) Developing a school code against bullying can reduce peer victimisation

b) Victimisation doesn't become evidence until middle school

c) Bullies and victims are not at higher risk for adjustment difficulties

d) Girls are as likely as boys to be bullies and victims

A

When does victimisation become evident?

Some studies indicate it emerges as early as Grade 4

True or False: Bullies and victims re at a higher risk for adjustment difficulties

True

True or False: Girls are as likely as boys to be bullies and victims

False

What is Reciprocal Determinism (Social-Cognitive Theory)?

A person can be both an agent for change and a responder to change. Speaks of the influence of the environment, others and the self.

Leticia failed to ride her bike up the hill with her friends. Later she asks her father to remove the training wheels from her bike so she would no longer feel embarrassed. This is an example of which part of Social Cognitive Theory?

Reciprocal Determinism

What are the three influences on behaviour in Social Cognitive Theory?

Modelling, Enactive Experience and Directive Tuition

In Social Cognitive Theory, how does modelling influence behaviour?

Watching what others doing influences what you do

In Social Cognitive Theory, how does inactive experience influence behaviour?

Individuals enact a behaviour and receive an evaluative comment

In Social Cognitive Theory, how does directive tuition influence behaviour?

Direct instruction given which changes behaviour

What are the three socio-cognitive regulators in Social Cognitive Theory?

Social Sanctions, Self Sanctions, and Self-Efficacy beliefs

In Social cognitive theory, what is the role of social sanctions in behaviour?

More social sanctions result in stronger rules about behaviours

In Social cognitive theory, what is the role of self sanctions in behaviour?

Child develops agency & applies sanctions to themselves (e.g. gets upset)

In Social cognitive theory, what is the role of self-efficacy beliefs in behaviour?

Belief that you're able to do something will encourage the behaviour

Cooper's parents are over-indulgent. As a result, he is likely to have an unrealistically \____ self-esteem and display \____.

High; Meanness and aggression

Aaron's parents are neglectful. As a result, he is likely to have \____ self-esteem and display \____.

Low; Withdrawal and depression

When classmates are asked to rate each other's likability, \___ children get many positive votes.

Popular

When classmates are asked to rate each other's likability, \___ children get many negative votes.

Rejected

When given a peer acceptance assessment, many of Michael's peers rated him positively. However, many also gave him negatively votes. Michael would be considered a(n) \____ child.

Controversial

When Darren's classmates are asked to rate each other's likability, he received almost no votes, either positive or negative. He would be classified as

Neglected

What children are at the highest risk for poor social performance, anti-social behaviour and delinquency.

a) Popular

b) Neglected

c) Rejected

d) controversial

C

Bodie is a rejected-aggressive child. Which characteristic is he likely to display?

Tendency to misinterpret the innocent behaviours of peers as hostile.

In terms of behaviour correlates and aggression, aggressive-rejected children are likely to be:

Bully-Victims

Daisy is a withdrawn-rejected child. Which characteristic is she likely to display?

Passive, socially awkward and overwhelmed by social anxiety

In terms of behaviour correlates and aggression, withdrawn-rejected children are likely to be:

Pure victims

What is the best definition of self-efficacy?

The belief in one's ability to cause an intended event to happen

During the middle-childhood years, disciplinary interactions with parents typically decrease because a child is more capable of:

a) Interdependence

b) Self-regulation

c) Self-evaluation

d) Independence

B) Self-regulation

True or False: Girls' friendships are more accepting of newcomers than boys' friendship groups are

False

True or False: Girls have better quality friendships whilst boys have a higher quantity of friends

True

True or False: Boys' friendship groups are smaller than girls' friendship groups

False

True or False: Girls are more likely to play in pairs or in small, fairly exclusive groups

True

True or False: Boys spend more time playing indoors or near home or school

False

What is the pattern of physical aggression observable among children in middle childhood?

Physical aggression becomes more common among children in middle childhood (i.e. increases)

What is the pattern of relational aggression observable among children in middle childhood?

Girls are more likely than boys to use relational aggression towards their peers in middle childhood

What is a pattern of aggressive behaviours observable in boys during middle childhood?

School-age boys often express their approval for the aggressive behaviour of peers

True or False: At every age, boys show more physical aggression than girls do

True

Psychologists have begun to believe that girls may not be less aggressive than boys, but rather than girls may express themselves using which form of aggression?

Relational Aggression

The following example is the best example of which type of aggression? Gloria announced to her friends "We're not going to be friends with Sharina Dany more. She's fat!"

Relational

The following example is the best example of which type of aggression? Jonathan reached across the aisle and gave Iman's pigtail a hard tug.

Physical

Although aggressive children are tend to be disliked by their peers, they are usually considered to be:

Of higher social status

Which of the following terms is used by a psychologist to describe children who are disliked and avoided by their peers?

Rejected

Harris' Theory:

Hypothesised child outcomes occur regardless of parents, peers are the primary environmental influence

* dyadic relationships are specific

What are the Socio-Cognitive Regulators?

Social Sanctions, Self-Sanctions, Self-Efficacy Beliefs

What is the best technique / practice for eliminating behaviours?

Reasoning: Low level comments and reasons because it removes emotions to give the child a better ability to generalise behaviours

What is the worst technique / practice for eliminating behaviours?

Withdrawal of Love: Creates anxiety

Define Corporal Punishment

Use of physical force with the intention to cause pain but not injury for the purpose of correcting or controlling a child's behaviour e.g. spank, slap

Define Physical Abuse

Infliction of physical injury harming a child, regardless of intent to hurt. Often results from over discipline or physical punishment

According to Gershoff (2001) what are the two largest effect sizes of child behaviour and experiences associated with parental corporal punishment?

Immediate Compliance; Victim of Child Abuse

According to Gershoff And Grogan-Kaylor (2016), what are some of the negative behavioural outcomes associated with?

Increased aggression, anti-social behaviour, externalising problems, internalising problems, mental health problems

\
Negative child outcomes and relationship with parents

Decreased moral internalising, cognitive ability and self-esteem

What did Deater-Deckard et al. (1996) find in relation to cultural differences in outcomes from physical discipline

Increased physical discipline during 0-5yo increased externalising problems for European-American children, but there was no effect for African-American children

What was the interaction between normative attitudes to punishment and use of punishment (Landsford et al., 2005)?

For cultures with non-normative attitudes to punishment, child anxiety and aggression increased as the use of punishment increases. However, in cultures with normative attitudes, high use of punishment was related to low child anxiety and aggression outcomes

What is the advantage of child self-disclosure in the parent-child relationship?

Increased child self-disclosure leads to better relationship with the parents and less likelihood to develop externalising or substance abuse problems

Right to Know (STK): Rote and Smentana

Adolescents with stronger RTK beliefs predicted lower concealment over time. Mothers with stronger RTK beliefs predicted more adult concealment over time.

Pressured Secrecy v. Pressured Disclosure (Kearney and Bussey, 2014)

Pressured Secrecy: Aversive for girls, associated with higher depression and anxiety. For boys, related to stress.

Pressured Disclosure: Positive effects on girls anxiety over time.

* Spontaneous disclosure is the goal

According to Kearney & Bussey (2015), what are two things associated with greater child disclosure?

High openness in communication and stronger disclosure self-efficacy beliefs

Psychosocial outcomes are better for spontaneous disclosure than other parental knowledge mechanism (Parental Solicitation and Parental Control). What are these psychosocial outcomes?

Lower externalising, anti-social behaviour and juvenile delinquency. Better child relationship and academic adjustment

For adolescents, what type of relational self-efficacy beliefs are related to greater satisfaction within family life, open communication and avoiding disagreements?

Greater Filial and Collective Family Efficacy Beliefs

For adults, what type of relational self-efficacy beliefs are related to greater satisfaction within family life, open communication and avoiding disagreements?

Greater Parental, Marital and Collective Family Efficacy Beliefs

Child Outcomes And Disclosure:

Families who disclose in the preschool years show more positive outcomes (integrate information better). Children told in adolescence are less well adjusted (identity issue)

What is Attachment Theory?

Focuses on the quality of the caregiving relationship. The role of the caregiver is to co-regulate the infants' emotional arousal and distress

What are the two main features of Attachment Theory?

Safe Haven: Parent watches over exploration and delights in child's exploration

Secure Base: When the child needs help, they have a secure base to return to, to become calm and regulated again

What are the three critical things for sensitive caregiving (Ainsworth)?

1. Notice child's signals
2. Interpret signals correctly
3. Respond appropriately

How does Birigen (2008) describe emotionally available parenting?

Non-intrusive, give baby autonomy to take age-appropriate risks, have independence, non-hostile

What are the three determinants of parenting in Belsky's Model?

a) Parent Characteristics

b) Child Variables

c) Culture / Context Variable

In Belsky's Model of Determinants of Parenting, what are Parent Characteristics?

* Mood Issues and genetic vulnerability to mood issues
* Personality
* Development / Attachment history

In Belsky's Model of Determinants of Parenting, what are Child Variables

* Temperament
* gender
* special needs
* \

In Belsky's Model of Determinants of Parenting, what are Culture / Context Variables?

* Partner: Support or Conflict
* Available social support
* SES and Resources
* Neighbourhood

How do parents' own attachment history affect their parenting?

Difficult relationships as a child lead to difficulties as an adult and vulnerability to depression. Those with secure attachment feel more confident in their own abilities to give this to their child

How is Post-Natal Depression defined?

Depressed mood meeting DSM-V criteria for major depressive mood during 1st year after birth of child. When mood disturbance is persistent and disturbs day-to-day function

In relation to PND, what are characteristic feelings of major depression

Low mood, teariness, irritability, anhedonia, lack of energy, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, inability to concentrate and make decisions.

In relation to PND, what are some discriminating symptoms related to childbirth?

Feelings of guilt, failure, inadequacy or hopelessness, feeling unable to cope with every day things, loss of self-confidence and self-esteem, morbid thoughts, suicidal ideation / intentions, loss of interest in sex, anxiety symptoms and panic

Goodman and Gotlib's Model: How anxiety can affect the child

Prenatal mood / stress exposure influences the maternal HPA Axis. The prenatal stress influences mothers psychological state And sensitivity. Both the mothers psychological state and prenatal HPA axis influence infant stress reactivity and regulation

Mutual Regulation Model for Negative Feedback Loop between Depressed / Anxious Caregivers and Infants

1. Depressed / anxious mothers fail to notice child's signals or misinterpret neutral signals as negative
2. If they don't notice cues, they can't support infant with appropriate regulatory support
3. Infant adapts to unresponsive caregiving
4. Infant gives fewer cues to mother. Mother has less chance to practice responsive caregiving

Tronick And Gianino: Mutual Regulation Model

The response the infant elicits from the caregiver influences subsequent behaviour - Feedback loop

Circle of Limited Security

When child recognises caregiver won't receive cues from them, they adopt miscues or defences to manage their parents responsiveness e.g. if parent is anxious, child will stay close to be comforted by parent because they think its what the parent needs

What is the typical maternal profile of a depressed mother?

Withdrawn: Fails to welcome child in. Affectively restricted, disengaged, understimulated

What is the typical maternal profile of an anxious mother?

Intrusive: Fails to support child's independence. High affectivity, controlling, inappropriate tactile engagement, over-stimulatd

What are the top 5 reported issues for child abuse?

1) Domestic Violence, 2) Neglect, 3) Physical abuse, 4) Drug and alcohol abuse, 5) Emotional abuse

What are the top 5 ROSH reported issues for child abuse?

1) Physical abuse, 2) Neglect, 3) Domestic violence, 4) Sexual abuse, 5) Drugs and alcohol

What is a problem with moving children into foster homes with relatives or kin?

Bad parenting or sexual abuse patterns are within families and the child is likely to suffer the same thing.

With 46.3% of children being in care for 5y without formal fostering, what are the difficulties these children suffer?

Socio-emotional difficulties, lack of good peer relationship, poor academic achievement

What are risk factors / indicators of abusers?

Alcohol and drugs, authoritarian parenting styles, severe punitive tactics, highly stressed parents, lack of social support, unemployment, marital dissatisfaction, young parents

What is classified as a high risk neighbourhood?

Poor, transient, socially isolated, few community and informal supports, low parent-to-child ratio, poor public transport, few community spaces to meet up

In terms of parents' social risk factors for abuse, Child Abuse Potential relates to how a person endorsed ambiguous child patterns after hostile or neutral priming. The pattern between CPA and priming was:

High CPA + Hostile Priming = Increased hostile ratings of child.

Low CPA = Decreased hostile ratings of child.

Hostile Priming = Hostile rating

According to Logan-Green and Jones, chronic neglect (0-12yo) leads to:

Aggression and delinquency at 14yo

The consequences for victims of abuse are a function of:

Nature: Frequency, Intensity, Duration

Victim Characteristics: Age (younger = more severe), Self-blame

Nature of Relationship Between Victim and Perp: The closer the relationship, the worse the effects

What is the Cascading Effect?

Impact of abuse compounded with failure to reach developmental milestones

In the Abuse Model, what are moderators of outcomes?

Severity: The more severe, the worse the outcomes

Family Support: The stronger the family support, the better the outcomes

In the Abuse Model, what are mediators of outcomes?

Psychological Processes:

* Coping: Better coping strategies, better outcomes
* Attenuation of blame: The more you blame yourself, the worse the outcomes
* Self-Efficacy

Cheung et al. identified several factors related to positive mental health outcomes:

Physical activity in winter, positive coping strategies, positive self-esteem and internal locus of control.

Transmission of Abuse

Only 30% of people who were abused as children are currently abusing their children. 100% of people currently abusing their children were abused as children.

Interventions for Child Abuse:

Home Visitor Program

Early Headstart program

Triple P - Positive Parenting Program