Learning and Memory - Chapter 4

apraxia

A disorder that affects the ability to perform skilled movements due to brain damage.

associative stage

Second stage of skill learning where performance improves and errors decrease.

autonomous stage

Final stage of skill learning where performance becomes automatic

basal ganglia

Brain structures involved in skill learning and movement control.

closed skill

A skill performed in a stable, predictable environment.

cognitive skill

Mental abilities requiring thought and planning.

cognitive stage

Initial stage of skill learning involving conscious attention and mistakes.

constant practice

Practicing a skill the same way repeatedly.

deep brain stimulation

Surgical technique using electrodes to treat Parkinson's symptoms.

expert

Someone who has achieved the autonomous stage in a skill.

Huntington's disease

Inherited disorder causing brain damage and skill memory deficits.

identical elements theory

Learning transfer depends on shared elements between tasks.

implicit learning

Skill acquisition without conscious awareness.

knowledge of results

Feedback about performance outcome.

massed practice

Concentrated practice with little rest between sessions.

mirror reading

Task involving reading text reflected in a mirror.

mirror tracing

Task of tracing while viewing hands through a mirror.

motor programs

Stored movement patterns for skilled actions.

open skill

A skill performed in a changing, unpredictable environment.

Parkinson's disease

Disorder affecting basal ganglia and movement control.

perceptual-motor skill

Physical abilities requiring coordination and sensory input.

power law of learning

Improvement is rapid at first then slows over time.

rotary pursuit task

Task tracking a rotating target with a stylus.

serial reaction time task

Task measuring implicit sequence learning.

skill

Learned ability improved through practice.

skill decay

Loss of ability when practice stops.

spaced practice

Practice sessions separated by rest periods.

talent

Natural ability that facilitates skill learning.

transcranial magnetic stimulation

Technique using magnetic fields to study brain function.

transfer specificity

Skills transfer mainly to similar tasks.

variable practice

Practicing a skill in different ways.

What are the two main types of skills?

Perceptual-motor skills and cognitive skills.

What is the difference between closed and open skills?

Closed skills involve predefined movements (like ballet), while open skills require adapting to changing conditions (like playing soccer).

What is implicit learning?

Learning that occurs without conscious awareness of what is being learned.

What is the "power law of learning"?

The rate of improvement decreases over time - learning happens quickly at first, then slows down.

What's the difference between massed and spaced practice?

Massed practice is continuous/concentrated, while spaced practice is spread over multiple sessions.

Which type of practice leads to better long-term retention?

Spaced practice typically leads to better long-term retention.

What is the cognitive stage?

Initial stage where performance is based on following explicit rules and instructions.

What happens in the associative stage?

Actions become more stereotyped and less reliant on actively recalled rules.

What characterizes the autonomous stage?

Movements become automatic and can be performed with minimal attention.

How does skill decay work?

Skills deteriorate with non-use, with most forgetting occurring soon after last performance.

What is transfer specificity?

The principle that skills are often constrained in how they can be applied to new situations.

What factors affect skill retention?

Complexity of skill, quality of initial learning, frequency of practice, and recall conditions.

What are the three main brain regions involved in skill learning?

The basal ganglia, cerebral cortex, and cerebellum.

What is the main function of the basal ganglia in skill learning?

Directing interactions between sensory and motor systems, and linking sensory events to responses.

What is the cerebral cortex's primary role in skill learning?

Controlling complex action sequences and showing expansion in areas related to practiced skills.

What is the cerebellum's main function in skill learning?

Managing precise timing of motor sequences and movements.

How does practice affect these brain regions?

Practice leads to gradual changes in neural firing patterns, making movement control more accurate and efficient through synaptic plasticity.

What happens to cortical regions with practice?

Regions involved in performing the practiced skill expand in area, showing increased blood flow and neural activity.

How do basal ganglia neurons change during skill learning?

They develop specific firing patterns related to different parts of the task, with activity shifting from during-task to start/end of task as skills become automatic.

What evidence shows the cerebellum's importance in skill learning?

Animals that perform complex movements (like birds and dolphins) have larger cerebellums, and cerebellar damage impairs skill learning and timing.

What is apraxia and what causes it?

A deficit caused by damage to cerebral hemispheres (especially left parietal lobe) that affects coordination of purposeful movements. Main causes are head injuries and strokes.

What are the key symptoms of apraxia?

Patients can perform individual movement steps but cannot combine them into coordinated patterns. They may understand instructions but be unable to comply.

What is Huntington's disease and its main effects?

An inherited disorder causing gradual brain damage (especially basal ganglia and cerebral cortex). Leads to psychological problems, motor issues, and starts with facial twitching.

How does Parkinson's differ from Huntington's?

Unlike Huntington's, Parkinson's isn't usually hereditary and doesn't cause large-scale neuronal death. Main issue is reduced brainstem neurons that affect dopamine levels in basal ganglia.

What is deep brain stimulation and how does it work?

A surgical technique using implanted electrodes to deliver electrical current to specific brain regions. Can temporarily stop tremors by quieting disrupted brain activity patterns.

How do these disorders affect skill learning?

Both Parkinson's and Huntington's patients have difficulty with perceptual-motor tasks, but can learn some skills at different rates. Apraxia patients can improve with practice but may not reach normal performance levels.