Final Exam

Nervous and Endocrine System

Two systems that control and maintain homeostasis

Endocrine System

Regulates itself mostly by negative feedback

Endocrine System Communication

Communicates through means of hormones released into the bloodstream. Reacts slowly; may continue long after stimuli stops. Amplitude based

Nervous system Communication

Communicates by electrical impulses and neurotransmitters at synapses to target specific cells; Reacts quickly to stimuli and stops quickly when stimuli stops. Frequency Based

Brain Command Center of Endocrine System

Hypothalamus

Hypothalamus messages to posterior pituitary

Stimulation of neurons and action potentials are conducted through the hypothlamopophysial tract.

Hypothalamus messages to anterior pituitary

Releasing Hormones and inhibiting hormones pass through the hypophysial portal system

Function of Hypothalamus

Maintain Homeostasis in body

Function of Pituitary Gland

Produce and Release Hormones that regulate various bodily functions, including growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

Function of Thymus

Production and maturation of T-cells

Function of Thyroid Gland

Increases metabolism of all body tissues, maintains body temperature

Function of Parathyroid Gland

Regulate calcium levels in the blood and bones, stimulates osteoclasts (dissolves and breaks down bone)

Function of Adrenal Glands

Secretes epinephrine and norepinephrine (medulla)

Function of Ovaries

Produces eggs, and hormones for pregnancy and menstruation

Function of Testes

Produces sperm

Function of Pancreas

Acini cells produces pancreatic juices (exocrine), islets of langerhans secrete insulin, glucagon and GHIH (endocrine)

Function of Pineal Glands

Regulates sleep-wake cycles by producing melatonin.

Kidney secretion

Erythropoietin is produced to regulate red blood cell production.

Placental Secretion

Chorionic gonadotropin (HcG)

Adipose Secretion

Leptin; appetite control | Resistin; insulin antagonist (may cause obesity-related diabetes) | Adiponectin; enhances insulin sensitivity

Heart Secretion

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), lowers BP (decreases sodium conc-)

GH- Growth Hormone

Most abundant; produced by anterior pituitary, stimulates growth of bones, tissues and organs

FSH- Follicle Stimulating Hormone, LH- Luteinizing Hormone

Produced by Anterior pituitary and produces eggs and sperm

Oxytocin

Secreted by Posterior Pituitary; increases uterine contractions during labor and milk letdown from lactating breast

Prolactin

Secreted by Anterior Pituitary; Promotes milk production

ADH- Antidiuretic Hormone

Secreted by Posterior pituitary; increases water reabsorption and blood pressure

Aldosterone

Produced by Adrenal Cortex(Mineralocorticoid; Zona Glomerulosa); increases BP

Calcitonin

A hormone produced by the thyroid gland that lowers blood calcium levels by inhibiting osteoclast activity.

PTH- Parathyroid Gland

A hormone produced by the parathyroid glands that increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclast activity and promoting calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

Insulin

Secreted by pancreas; Beta cells which lowers blood glucose

Glucagon

Secreted by pancreas; Alpha cells which raises blood glucose

Function of Digestive System

Break down food into nutrients for absorption and energy.

Order of Digestive Tract

Mouth-Pharynx-Esophagus-Stomach-Small Intestine-Large Intestine-Rectum-Anus

Accessory Organs of Digestive Tract

Tongue, Teeth, Salivary Glands, Liver, Gallbladder, Pancreas

Most Absorption

Small intestine (jejunem)

Vagus Nerve

Chyme moving along digestive tract is regulated by this nerve, part of parasympathetic system (GI tract)

Function of Liver

Bile Production, Storage of Nutrients(glycogen, fat)

Food Molecules Digested

Large Intestine breaks down for absorption into circulation

Phrenic Nerve

Respiratory Diaphragm

Pudendal Nerve

Controls pelvic floor muscles and sensation in the pelvic region. Sexual

Salivary Amylase, Lingual lipase

Produced by mouth

HCL/Pepsin

Produced by Stomach

Trypsin, chymotrypsin, pancreatic lipase/bile salts

Small Intestine

Pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin

Protein

Lipids

Bile salts- emulsify fats for absorption

Catabolism

Degradative; Energy releasing where LARGE molecules broken down

Anabolism

Synthetic; energy requiring where SMALL molecules join to form LARGE molecules

Aerobic Respiration

Produces ATP in the presence of oxygen breaking down glucose

3 Pathways of Aerobic Respiration

• Glycolysis

• Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

• Electron-Transport Chain

Hypothalamus

Part of the brain that regulates temperature through negative feedback

Increase in body temp

Blood vessels dilate and sweating increases to promote heat loss and evaporative cooling

Decrease in body temp

Blood vessels constrict, skeletal muscles contract causing shivering and metabolism increases

Fever

Pyrogens released by immune system are released, hypothlamus detects and raises body temperature to fight infection.

Urinary System

Major Excretory system of the body that helps maintain homeostasis

Nephron

Functional unit of kidney

Kidneys

Urine formation, filtration, reabsorption and secretion; right kidney is lower, behind peritoneum

Ureters

Transport urine from kidney to urinary bladder

Urinary Bladder

Temporary storage reservoir for urine

Urethra

Transports urine out of body

Renal Corpuscle

Filters blood

PCT- Proximal Convoluted Tubule

Reabsorption; Loops of Henle- Descending and Ascending limb

DCT- Distal Convoluted Tubule

Secretion

Path of urine in nephron

renal corpuscle, PCT, Loop of Henle, DCT, and collecting duct

Filtration

occurs in renal corpuscle; glomerular capillaries force fluid out of blood

Tubular Reasbsorption

occurs in proximal convoluted tubule (PCT); transport proteins move water back into blood

Tubular Secretion

occurs in the distal convoluted tubule (DCT); Transport additional solutes from blood into filtrate

Functions of blood

Transports gases, protect against foreign substances, regulates pH

Composition of Blood

Plasma (55%), Formed Elements (45%)

Hematopoiesis

Process of blood cell formation in bone marrow

Erythropoiesis

Producing RBC in the bone marrow, stimulated by erythropoietin hormone.

Myeloid Stem cells

Produce Erythrocytes, Granulocytes- basophils, neutrophils, and eosinophils; Agranulocytes- monocyte and platelets

Lymphoid Cell line

ONLY PRODUCE LYMPHOCYTES

Blood pH

7.35-7.45

Highest to Least presence of WBC

Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, and Basophils;

Ameboid Movement

Direct Movement similar to amoeba

Diapedesis

Cells leave blood stream by elongating and becoming thin

Chemotaxis

Movement towards foreign material or damaged cells

Heme

oxygen

Globin

carbon dioxide

Fibrin clotting system

Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin which forms the structural basis of a clot

Type A

A-antigens w/ B-antibodies

Type B

B-antigens w/ A-antibodies

Type AB

A-antigens and B-antigens with no antibodies; Universal Recipient (+)

Type O

no antigens with both A and B antibodies; Universal donor (-)

Hemolytic Disease of Newborn

Rh incompatibility between an Rh-negative mother and Rh-positive baby, leading to the mother's antibodies attacking the baby's red blood cells.

Leukemia

Cancer of red bone marrow where WBC are overproduced

Hypoglycemia

Low blood glucose, too much insulin

Hyperglycemia

High blood glucose; not enough insulin

Normal Blood Glucose Levels

70-100 mg/dL when fasting, 140mg/dL or less two hours after eating.

Function of Heart

Generates BP, pumps blood, and circulates nutrients and oxygen.

Fibrous Pericardium

Tough outer layer, prevents overdistention

Serous Pericardium

Inner layer divided into Parietal; lines outer layer and Visceral; covers heart surface

lubb sound

AV valves closing during ventricular systole

dupp sound

closing of aortic and pulmonary valves at the beginning of ventricular diastole

SA node

pacemaker of heart; passes signal to AV node

AV node

receives signals slowly to ensure ventricular contraction after atria is done

AV bundle

pathway through inter ventricular septum

Right and Left bundle branches

signal sent to beneath endocardium

Purkinje Fibers

Signal travels faster to ventricles

ECG usage

detects a-fib, myocardial infarction and ischemia