Archaeology Lecture Notes Vocabulary

Flashcards of key vocabulary from the lecture notes.

Reductive production

A manufacturing process that produces artifacts by removing material from the original raw materials through waste products and tool marks

Synthetic production

A process that produces artifacts through adding material; examples include ceramic, bronze, and glass artifacts

Ceramics

Manipulated and molded materials that are plastic prior to the firing stage of production

Untempered ceramics

Ceramics to which other substances have not been added to the clay

Ceramic tempers

Materials added to ceramic paste before firing; can range from organics like grass, blood, and eggs to inorganics like quartz, calcite, volcanic ash, and even old sherds (grog)

Ceramic slip

A thin layer of clay and water applied to the surface of ceramics

Resist designs

Created by placing a material over parts of the surface to shield it from the heat of the kiln, causing variations in color

Chaîne opératoire

Operational chain of production - the sequence of steps involved in the production, use, and eventual discard of an artifact

Mass compositional analysis

An analytical technique used to identify and quantify the chemical composition of archaeological samples

Petrography

The description and classification of rocks using thin sections analyzed under a microscope

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

A technique that calculates the chemical composition of a material by measuring the fluorescent x-rays emitted by a substance when it is bombarded with gamma rays

Particle-induced X-ray emission spectrometry (PIXE)

A technique that bombards a material with an ion beam from a particle accelerator, causing electromagnetic radiation to be emitted to assess chemical composition

Neutron activation analysis (NAA)

A highly sensitive and precise technique for measuring chemical composition by bombarding a sample with neutrons

Lithics

Artifacts made of stone, particularly those shaped or modified by humans for tools and other purposes

Jade

Jadeite, highly valued by the Maya for its symbolic and economic significance

Knapping

The process of knocking pieces off a rock by striking it with another object

Flaked stone tools

Created by striking a stone to produce sharp edges; examples include arrowheads, scrapers, and knives

Ground stone tools

Made by grinding or pecking stone into shape; examples include mortars, pestles, and axes

Direct percussion

Involves striking the core with a hard object, often a hammerstone or antler

Indirect percussion

Involves placing an intermediate tool, or punch, on the core

Stone (Lithics)

Used for tools and weapons; shaped through flaking, grinding, and polishing

Clay (Ceramics)

Molded into pottery and fired to harden

Metal (Copper, Bronze, Iron)

Smelted and forged into tools, weapons, and ornaments

Bone & Antler

Carved into tools, decorative items, and weapons

Wood

Used for structures, tools, and vessels; often preserved in waterlogged sites

Caracol

One of the largest Maya sites that was known for its monumental architecture, social organization, and trade networks

Limestone

Used to construct temples, pyramids, and palaces, often quarrying it locally

Obsidian

A volcanic glass used for cutting tools, weapons, and ritual items

Achieved social identities

Identities earned through accomplishments

Ascribed social identities

Identities assigned at birth

Reconstructing social identities

Analyzing material culture, burial practices, settlement patterns, and artifacts to infer aspects of past societies

Gender

How societies constructed gender roles through artifacts, iconography, and burial customs

Class

Elite and commoner distinctions visible in housing, grave goods, and diet

Access to Resources

Reflects economic disparities

Pottery styles, language inscriptions, and trade networks

Reveals ethnic affiliations

Age

Skeletal analysis helps determine childhood, adulthood, and elderly roles

Religion

Temples, ritual objects, and iconography reveal spiritual beliefs

Functions of the skeleton

Provide insights into health, diet, social status, and activity patterns

Analysis of Human Bones by Sex

An estimation of biological sex is often made on the premise that sexual dimorphism exists between males and females

Cranium

A vital skeletal element for studying past populations that provides insights into age, sex, health, and cultural practices

Brow bridge

A bony structure above the eye sockets that has been studied for its evolutionary, functional, and social significance

Facial bones

Provide valuable insights into human evolution, identity, and health

Mandible

Lower jawbone that provides insights into diet, health, and evolutionary traits

The Jaw

Offering insights into diet, health, and evolutionary development

Pelvis

Key skeletal element for studying sex, age, health, and mobility

Age at death of children

Can be roughly estimated from the degree of ossification and fusion of particular parts of the skeleton

Age at death for adults

Special attention is given to degenerative patterns on the pelvis and the fusion of cranial sutures

Dental Analysis

Tooth eruption and wear patterns help determine age, especially in juveniles

Epiphyseal Fusion

The fusion of bone growth plates provides age estimates for subadults

Pubic Symphysis & Auricular Surface

Changes in these pelvic structures are commonly used for adult age estimation

Cranial Suture Closure

The gradual fusion of skull sutures can indicate general age ranges

Degenerative Changes

Osteoarthritis and vertebral wear help estimate age in older individuals

Archaeothanatology

The study of the taphonomy of human remains in archaeological contexts, including decomposition, burial practices, and post-depositional processes

Paleodemography

The study of population characteristics in the past, such as size, density, and mortality rates

Archaeogenetics

A field that combines archaeology and genetics to study ancient DNA extracted from human, animal, and plant remains

Paleo Diet

The study of ancient diets using various methods, such as stable isotope analysis and the analysis of plant and animal remains

Paleobotany

Examines fossilized plants from prehistoric periods, often before human influence

Archaeobotany (or paleoethnobotany)

Focuses on plant remains found in archaeological contexts, studying how past societies used plants for food, medicine, and rituals

Stable Isotope Analysis

Used to reconstruct past diets, migration patterns, and environmental conditions

C3

Use the Calvin cycle for photosynthesis and prefer cooler, wetter environments

C4

Use an additional carbon fixation step, making them more efficient in hot, dry climates

Migration

The movement of human populations across landscapes, shaping cultural exchanges, technological developments, and societal transformations

Gene flow

The transfer of genetic material between populations through migration and interbreeding

Biological distance

The study of genetic and phenotypic similarities among human populations based on skeletal traits

Paleopathology

The study of ancient diseases, injuries, and health conditions through skeletal remains, mummified tissue, and other preserved biological materials

Dental caries

A disease process that results in the demineralization of teeth

Periodontal disease

Often results in tooth loss and can be detected on skeletal remains

Infectious diseases

Tuberculosis and syphilis cause distinctive lesions, particularly in the spine and skull

Joint diseases

Osteoarthritis leads to bone degeneration and extra growths (osteophytes), indicating repetitive stress or aging

Metabolic disorders

Rickets (vitamin D deficiency) results in bowed legs, while scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) causes porous bone structures

Trauma

Fractures, healed injuries, and weapon wounds provide insights into violence, accidents, or medical care

Perimortem

Happens at or near the time of death and lacks healing

Antemortem

Occurs before death and shows signs of healing, such as smooth, rounded edges or bone regrowth

Body modification

Intentional alterations of the human body for cultural, social, or ritual purposes

Structural violence

The ways in which social inequalities manifest in past societies and their material remains

Mortuary contexts

The study of burial sites, funerary practices, and human remains to understand past societies' beliefs, social structures, and identities

Articulated

Are found in anatomical order, meaning the bones remain connected as they were in life

Disarticulated

Consist of bones that have been separated from their original anatomical positions

Primary burial

The initial placement of a body in a grave, typically undisturbed and left to decompose naturally

Secondary burial

Occurs when remains are later moved, reorganized, or reburied

Prone burial

The individual is buried face down

Supine burial

The individual is buried face up, which is the most common burial position across many cultures

Grave Goods

Objects buried alongside the deceased, often reflecting cultural beliefs, social status, or personal significance

Determining social inequality from burials

Analyzing differences in grave goods, burial location, tomb architecture, and skeletal health

Neolithic Revolution

A transformative period in human history when societies shifted from hunting and gathering to agriculture and settlement

Agriculture

Studied through material remains such as plant residues, farming tools, irrigation systems, and settlement patterns

Food production

Studied through material remains such as plant residues, farming tools, irrigation systems, and settlement patterns

Plant cultivation

The study of how ancient societies managed and grew plants for food, medicine, and other uses

Harvesting

The study of ancient methods used to gather and process crops, revealing insights into agricultural practices, food economies, and environmental adaptations

Domestication

The process by which humans selectively bred plants and animals to enhance desirable traits, leading to long-term genetic and behavioral changes

Process of domestication 1

Diet not easily supplemented by humans

Process of domestication 2

Slow growth rate and long birth spacing

Process of domestication 3

Nasty disposition

Process of domestication 4

Reluctance to breed in captivity

Process of domestication 5

Lack of follow the leader dominance hierarchies

Process of domestication 6

Tendency to panic in enclosures

Ecofact

A natural object that has been used or modified by humans but is not intentionally crafted

Artifact

A human-made or modified object, typically portable

Feature

A non-portable element of an archaeological site

Evidence for sedentism

The shift from mobile lifestyles to permanent settlements through structural remains, food production, burial practices, environmental impacts, and biological marks