League of Nations - History Notes

Collective security

Peace could be preserved by countries collectively preventing one country from attacking another

Collective security and the League of nations

When a dispute would occur between countries, they would refer their issues to the League's Assembly If a solution couldn't be found, the Council would apply 'collective security' This meant that the Council would firstly impose moral pressure, if this didn't work they would impose economic sanctions, to force the country deemed to be in the wrong to comply with their decisions

The Covenant of the League of Nations

They first met in December 1920. Their main Objective was to keep peace and avoid future international conflicts by promoting disarmament, international cooperation, and economic development

There were 26 articles, which outlined the functions of the League, promoted humanitarian issues, set down how amendments to the Convent were made, and promoted the Red Cross.

Initial Members of the League of Nations

Thirty-two allied states
Twelve neutral states
By 1926, all ex-enemy states had joined
USSR was admitted in 1934 🇷🇺
USA never joined 🇺🇸

Dealing with International Disputes

Member states should have referred their disputes to either:

• The permanent court of international justice
• Arbitration
• An investigation or inquiry by the council.
  If failed to handle disputes, the League imposed economic sanctions (main tool against aggressors).

Imposing economic sanctions + problems with calling for military action

After WW1, the economic blockade of Germany was effective, therefore it had the potential to be effective in forcing compliance/obedience.

Calling for military action was the last resort against an aggressor.

The league did not have its own armed forces and states did not want to give their forces up to international control.

Disputes regarding how armed forces should be used, France wanted a League Army, but Britain resisted this.

How was the LoN set up?

The league of nations has 5 main key parts within it, with many subsections within:

• The assembly
• The council
• International Labour Organization
• Permanent Court of Justice
• Secretariat (management)
  &
• Special commissions (8)

The Assembly

a) Debating chamber
b) All member states represented
c) Decisions required one unanimity (agreement by all of the parties)
d) All states has one vote
e) Met annually

The Council

a) Operative body (responsible for decisions)
b) Has permanent members (like the UN security council):

• Britain
• France
• Italy
• Japan
• Germany
  c) All have veto power (the power to reject any statement or topic)
  d) Other members are elected and aren't permanent (elected every 3 years)

(Very similar to how the UN is structured)

International Labour Organization

Advisory body on matter relating to social and economic justice

Permanent Court of Justice

a) Court for international disputes among member states
b) Had 15 judges
c) Based in The Hague

Secretariat (management)

a) Administrative duties
b) Recorded decisions
c) Prepared reports

Special commissions

1) Mandates (administration of former colonies) (Responsible for Saar and Danzig)
2) Health
3) Traffic in drugs, alcohol, and arms
4) Slavery
5) Refugees
6) Minorities
7) Traffic in women and children
8) Aid to underdeveloped states

Problems for the league of nations

Changing membership of the League and the absence of major powers (mainly the USA).

Changing membership of the League

The changing membership of the League reflected the priorities of the previous leaders as the more liberal governments of the time became more polarised following the Wall Street crash of 1929. The league's right wing governments became more aggressive.

As the thought of another world war came closer to reality, some nations started to withdraw from the League such as Austria, Japan, Germany, Italy, Spain and the USSR from 1933 to 39.

Absence of major powers

The absence of major powers from the League of Nations was a deciding factor in its working and influence. This may be the key reason as to why the League ultimately failed to prevent another world war.

The most prominent absent major power was the USA, as the League of Nations was an American idea, championed by Woodrow Wilson. The US Congress was concerned that membership would involve the USA in European conflicts, and so the USA chose the path of isolationism.

The absence of the USA severely weakened the League to use this so-called "collective security" against aggression. The USA's involvement would have given the sanctions imposed by the League more weight, as it was a global superpower, but they were not involved. Without the USA, the League became, save for Japan, distinctly European.

Attempts to strengthen the league

In 1923, France proposed a treaty of mutual assistance which would act as a defensive treaty obligation for all members, similar to NATO's article 5. In 1924, France proposed the Geneva Protocol which required arbitration of all member disputes by the court of justice. Both French proposals were rejected by the British and the Scandinavian powers who were uneasy about increasing the League's centralised power and member commitments

The league remained divided between the states that wanted a strong League to enforce the existing territorial agreements and those who wanted it to be more selective in dealing with aggression. Due to division of vulnerability between various states France felt exposed while other countries were not worried nor did they want to take on what they saw as extra commitments. Further Highlighted by the Ruhr Crisis, deeply undermined the principle of collective security.

Aaland Islands 1920

Islands were populated mainly by Swedes, however after the collapse of Russia, Finland claimed sovereignty over them. The League of Nations diffused conflict between Sweden and Finland, by giving the islands to Finland.

Vilna 1920-23

Here the league was unsuccessful, both Poland and Lithuania wanted control of Vilna, which had once been the capital of Lithuania, however its people were now Polish. Poles seized and retained Vilna by force. The Conference of ambassadors awarded Vilna to Poland.

Upper Silesia 1921

Germany and Poland both wanted control of upper Silesia, an important industrial area. League split the area in two.

Corfu 1923

Italian army officers were shot while in the process of figuring out a Greek and Albanian border dispute. Greece was blamed by Mussolini and ordered for compensation, however Greece didn't budge. Italy then occupied Corfu, with greece appealing to the league about the situation and was ruled in greece's favour. However Italy did not budge until compensation was given.

Mosul 1924

Turkey and Iraq both laid claims on the area of Mosul. The league considered the problem and awarded the area to Iraq, this was accepted by both sides.

Bulgaria 1925

After a greek invasion of Bulgaria, the league ordered both sides to stop fighting. Greece was blamed for starting the dispute and was ordered to pay damages after an investigation by the league. Greece accepted the blame and was ordered to pay compensation.

Weakness of central european states

Austro-hungarian empire had collapsed and it was replaced by several smaller states ( Czechoslovakia and the union of the State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs and the Kingdom of Serbia).

Many struggled politically, economically and to maintain stability, they needed the support from league of nations.
Particularly needed help in terms of economic development and territorial security, these states could not offer the league much tangible support in return.

Absence of the USSR

The USSR was excluded from the League of Nations due to the newly established Bolshevik government.

The league was afraid that the 'revolution of the proletariat' would spread, they believed it would be better to isolate the Soviets instead of embracing them in this newly established organisation in order to "prevent conflict".

This was not beneficial for the League in the long term as the USSR saw the League as a 'club for capitalists' and as Lenin quotes "a robbers' den to safeguard the unjust spoils of Versailles"

Absence of Germany

Although Germany was eventually included in the league in September of 1926, its initial exclusion sent many strong messages.

Firstly, it created the idea that the league of nations was only for the victors of the war, as opposed to a permanent council available to all nations.

Furthermore, by excluding Germany, the league showed that they still recognised and feared German power, almost reiterating the factors that kick-started WW1.

The crises that enveloped the league in it's early years

• The Ruhr Crisis
• The Rapallo Treaty
• Locarno
• Dawes & Young Plans
• The Great Depression
• Kellogg-Briand Pact

Structural Weakness

1) They did not have an army - couldn't enforce actions and countries knew this.
2) Absence of Major powers - Germany, Russia and the USA were not members.
3) Only met once a year in September
4) Decisions had to be unanimous - easy for country to veto so not much action was taken
5) Failure to prevent aggression - such as France and Belgium taking direct action to occupy Ruhr

The Ruhr Crisis

1922-1923, Germany asked for suspension of reperation payments, France's security depended on the payments, france and belgium, backed by Italy, moved into the Ruhr. The German government orded strikes in retaliation, but the loss of the Ruhr's industrial output collapsed the German economy. German monetary policy, to print more money to pay the striking workers, caused hyperinflation

The Rapallo Treaty

In April 1922, Germany and Russia signed the Rapallo Treaty, agreeing to cooperate economically and both governments denounced reparations. Both Germany and Russia had felt isolated from the League

This meant that military cooperation would now take place, which would allow Germany to rearm and train secretly in Russia, whilst Russia got access to more advanced technology.

The treaty made Britain more determined to win over Germany rather than further alienate the nation, to avoid Germany becoming closer with Russia. The treaty also undermined the League of Nations, because it was made without consulting it.

Locarno

After the Ruhr crisis the state of Europe was improved by the Locarno and Dawes pact, formed outside of the League. Stresemann was against an independent Rhineland and wanted foriegn forces out of Germany, Germany was willing to give up its claim to Alsace-Lorraine, Malmedy and Eupen in exchange for reassurance that France would not invade again.

A treaty was signed guaranteed the borders between France, Belgium and Germany. Germany signed treaties with Poland and Czechoslovakia agreeing to change the eastern borders by arbitration only. Germany was also admitted into the League of Nations.

It was a hope for Europe's future security, "Locarno spirit" = enemies could work together and uphold the Versaille settlement. However Locarno undermined the Treaty of Versailles and The League.

Dawes & Young Plans

Intended to reduce the total sum to be repaid, and intended to temporarily resolve the issue of reparations that Germany owed. It created a set date for the completion of payments - 1988.

Continued U.S involvement in the respiration payments. As a part of the deal, Britain and France agreed to end their occupation of the Rhineland five years ahead of schedule.
Foundations for the dawes and the young plan were foreign money, from the United States.

The causes of the Great Depression

1) America's internal stock market crash (1929)
2) Stock market was out of control
3) Economic crash that affected the whole of the USA and therefore the world.
4) Was very surprising as the USA had been financially growing at an exponential rate.
5) Affected the whole of the global economy due to a web of debts.
6) A result of inflation, overproduction and economic split.

The consequences of the Great Depression

1) Heightened fears of the USSR's working capacity for fostering the spread of communism
2) Massive unemployment
3) Economic collapse
4) Banking crises
5) Decline in agriculture
6) Social unrest
7) Rise of totalitarian regimes
8) Protectionism
9) Global deflation
10) Migration patterns
11) Welfare and government intervention
12) International instability

Social and Political changes of the Great Depressoin

1) Soviet propaganda claimed that the depression demonstrated the inherent failings of capitalism, with the inevitable replacement with the communist system
2) Britain and France were alarmed at the escalating nationalist and independence movements in their respective empires.
3) The democratic governments were thus increasingly forced to review their strategies for dealing with international tension
4) The leagues key weapon of sanctions was now a weapon most countries would not want to deploy
5) The US pulled away more into isolationism
6) The strategy of appeasing countries in response to aggression has become more realistic.

Kellogg-Briand Pact

Initiated by American Secretary of State William Kellogg and French Foreign Minister Aristide Briand. The pact renounced "war as an instrument of national policy", 62 of 64 invited states signed, Brazil and Argentina declined.

The Contemporary views of the pact were generally positive as it was seen as important by many governments as they thought it would fulfil objectives peacefully. The pact was seen as a high point in the Locarno spirit.

The Manchurian Dispute

In September 1931, the Japanese army in Manchuria (the kwantung Army - responsible for protecting japanese interests in the area) planted a bomb near the town of Mukden and claimed that it was 'evidence of growing disorder', using it as an excuse to conquer the province and expand its influence in the territory.

In this incident one key member of the League (Japan) had attacked another member (China), China appealed to the league for help against the aggressor, which was exactly the type of incident that the League's 'collective security' was designed to contain.

The League's response to the manchurian dispute

The League of Nations took three actions:

1) It condemned Japan's invasions and demanded a withdrawal from Manchuria. The Japanese government agreed to these terms, but the military acted independently and refused, exposing the weakness of the government

2) It commissioned Lord Lytton to investigate the crisis, but the investigation took over a year to report back to the League - when the invasion was complete

3) It accepted the Lytton Report which found Japan guilty of forcibly seizing China's territory and instructed members not to recognise the new Japanese state, Manchuko. Then the League politely invited Japan to return Manchuria to China.

Why did the League fail to resolve the Manchuria crisis?

The Great Depression meant that member states were too preoccupied about own domestic crisies, and unwilling to apply economic sanctions.

Manchuria was remote and only the US and Britain had the naval resources to challenge Japan. The US was unwilling to act and Britain not want to act alone and risk naval conflict with Japan as they were scared of being outnumbered as well as threatening colonial interests.

China was very disorganised and some thought it was a good thing Japan had invaded as protection against communism. There was an absence of collective security among the League's members.

Japan rejected the report and withdrew from the League in 1933, highlighting the League's inability to enforce its decisions.

What was the impact of the Manchurian Crisis on the League of Nations?

China had appealed to the League for help and received no practical support. Japan left the League of Nations, which has effectively removed the Far East from the system of collective security. Encouraged by what happened in Manchuria Mussolini began planning his expansionist adventure into Abyssinia.

The general appeal of the league of nations in the eyes of the public was humiliating. Undermined collective security which the league strived towards

What was the impact of the Manchurian Crisis on the growth of Japanese militarism?

Starting point for the dominance of militarism within the Japanese government and ultimately led to the Pacific war. The Manchurian Incident widely regarded as one of the great turning points in the history of modern Japan, it encouraged military leadership, and weakened civilian control.

The Abyssinian Crisis

Mussolini began planning for the annexation of Abyssinia in 1935, the aim was to connect Italian-held Eritrea & Italian Somaliland, secure a north African Empire & distract his people from the Depression.

They did not recive help from France and Britain wanted to keep Italy as an ally against Nazi Germany.

The full-scale invasion began in October 1935 and Haile Selassie appealed to the League.

The league of nations responded to Italy's invasion on the 18th of October in the form of condemnation and a programme of escalating sanctions Anxious of damaging relations, Britain and France sought settlement with Italy outside the League.

Despite strong public support, League sanctions were incredibly mild - no embargo was ever instituted and Britain refused to close the suez canal for Italian ships. Mussolini continued escalation through to May 1936 when Italy took control of Abyssinia.

What Were The Effects of The Abyssinian Crisis on The League of Nations?

Permanent members had again ignored the league, and had disproven the L.O.N very beliefs, by demonstrating that there is victory in violence- slandering their image. The L.O.N was made to look 'ineffective' in using their 'collective security' in order to keep peace. This led to a loss of faith in the league's ability to maintain international peace, and cooperation between member nations. The League's influence was greatly reduced, which left them complacent in preventing a war outbreak.

The alliance between british, french and italians had collapsed. Italy now isolated, moved closer to Nazi Germany, the leagues weakness was exposed for hitler to exploit, which he started of with the militarization of the Rhineland.

The League of Nations could no longer exert any authority. Collective security failed

The reaction in Britain to the Abyssinian crisis

The British public largely condemned Italy's invasion of Abyssinia and expressed sympathy for Abyssinia. There was widespread support for the League of Nations and hopes that it would intervene to stop the aggression.

The British and French foreign ministers negotiated the Hoare-Laval Pact with Mussolini, going against what the general public wanted for the crisis.

The Hoare-laval pact was a pact between Britain, France and Italy which offered Mussolini most of Abyssinia in return for a truce in the Italo-Ethiopian War. Public outrage grew towards the british government and the league for not doing anything serious to stop Mussolini's actions, the British Government appeared indecisive and weak.

The london naval conference (1930)

A diplomatic meeting consisting of Britain, France, Japan, and Italy to extend the washington naval treaty of 1922. It aimed to reduce naval armaments and prevent an arms race.

Resulted in the London Naval Treaty, however, Japan was dissatisfied with its allocation and tensions remained over future naval balances.

The london naval treaty (1936)

An attempt to continue the disarmament efforts, Japan and Italy withdrew from the negotiations, feeling the limits were unfair. Only the U.S., Britain, and France signed the treaty.

Focused on limiting warship building, particularly submarine tonnage. The treaty was largely ineffective as rearmament was already underway in Europe and Asia

The Geneva Disarmament conference (1932-1934)

League of Nations' effort to reduce global arms involving over 60 countries, it failed due to rising tensions, particularly Germany's demand for military parity, Germany withdrew in 1933, leading to the collapse of talks which then contributed to the instability preceding World War II.

The Washington conference

A 1921-1922 conference held in Wasshinton, USA between the USA, Britain, France and Japan. It was an effort to move towards disarmament. Limited continually growing navies, with the intention of preventing a second build-up of tensions and militarism.

France was on the same level as Italy; and felt like it lost respect from other powers, France was offended at being the most limited- they felt like they were losing power and influence.