Infant Exam 2 (terms, timing, etc)

What is Phonology in language development?

Phonology refers to mastering the sound system of a language.

What are Phonemes?

Phonemes are the smallest sound units in a language (e.g., /p/ vs. /b/ ).

What are Phonotactics?

Phonotactics are the permissible sound combinations in a language.

How do infants use Statistical Learning in language development?

Infants track patterns and regularities in speech to identify word boundaries.

Explain Phonemic Tuning / Perceptual Narrowing.

By approximately 12 months, infants become more attuned to the sounds of their native language and lose the ability to distinguish non-native phonemes.

Describe the language milestone at Birth.

Stage: Crying & Cooing
Description: Communication through reflexive sounds; cooing (approximately 2–3 months) are vowel-like vocalizations.

Describe the language milestone at 6-7 months.

Stage: Canonical babbling
Description: Repetitive consonant-vowel sounds (e.g., “ba-ba”).

Describe the language milestone at 10-12 months.

Stage: 1st words
Description: Simple nouns, often overextended or underextended.

Describe the language milestone at 18 months.

Stage: Vocabulary spurt
Description: Rapid word learning, also known as a “naming explosion.”

Describe the language milestone at 18-24 months.

Stage: 2-word sentences
Description: “Telegraphic speech” – simple syntax, e.g., “Daddy go.”

Distinguish between Receptive language and Productive language.

Receptive language (comprehension) develops before productive language (speaking).

What is Word segmentation?

Identifying words within continuous speech.

What is Referent mapping?

Linking words to real-world objects/events.

What is Fast mapping?

Learning a new word from minimal exposure.

Explain Underextension and Overextension errors in word learning.

• Underextension: Using a word too narrowly (e.g., “dog” only for one's own dog).

• Overextension: Using a word too broadly (e.g., “dog” for all animals).

What is the Shape bias in word learning?

Assuming words refer to an object’s shape.

What is the Whole object assumption in word learning?

Assuming words name whole objects, not parts.

What is Mutual exclusivity bias in word learning?

Assuming each object has one label only.

What is Syntax?

The rules for combining words into sentences.

What is Syntactic bootstrapping?

Using grammatical context to infer meaning of words.

What is a Morpheme?

The smallest unit of meaning (e.g., “-ed” = past tense).

What are Pragmatics in language development?

The social rules around communication.

What are Protoconversations?

Early back-and-forth interactions with a caregiver.

What are Protoimperatives?

Requests for help or objects made by infants.

What are Protodeclaratives?

Sharing attention to an object (e.g., pointing and saying “look!”).

How do Social cues aid word learning?

Infants use eye gaze, pointing, and facial expressions to infer word meanings.

Explain Noam Chomsky's Nativist theory of language.

Proposes an innate Language Acquisition Device (LAD), a neural structure for grammar, and Universal Grammar, which includes shared abstract linguistic rules.

What is the Connectionist Theory of language?

Language is learned through neural networks that strengthen with experience.

Explain Vygotsky's Sociocultural theory of language.

Language learning occurs through social interaction; supported by scaffolding and child-directed speech.

What is the Dynamic Systems & Statistical Learning theory of language?

A bottom-up learning approach where patterns accumulate into complex linguistic understanding.

Who are Dual-language learners (DLLs)?

Individuals exposed to two languages from infancy.

Who are Simultaneous bilinguals?

Individuals who hear both languages early and develop similar language milestones to monolinguals.

What are the benefits of bilingualism?

Enhanced executive functioning and cognitive flexibility.

Differentiate Child-centered and Situation-centered cultural communication styles.

• Child-centered: Caregivers adapt to the infant’s needs.

• Situation-centered: Infants learn by observing adults.

What is Infant-directed speech (IDS)?

High-pitched, slow, exaggerated tone of voice used by caregivers; improves word segmentation.

What is Motionese?

Exaggerated gestures used to emphasize meaning in communication.

How do Maternal mental-state/emotion words influence language development?

They boost social-cognitive and language growth in children.

How does Quantity & diversity of caregiver speech impact child vocabulary?

More caregiver words lead to a larger child vocabulary.

How does Book reading influence language development?

It improves vocabulary and comprehension.

What do Statistical learning studies demonstrate?

They show that infants track syllable regularities in speech.

What is Intermodal preferential looking?

A research method that tests language comprehension via an infant's gaze direction.

What are Syntactic bootstrapping tasks?

Research tasks designed to test grammar-based word learning.

What are the LENA device and CHILDES database used for?

The LENA device and CHILDES database are tools used to analyze caregiver speech and infant vocabulary development.

Summarize the developmental trajectory from early word comprehension to later academic success.

Early word comprehension leads to social interaction, which fosters cognitive development, ultimately contributing to later academic success.

What is Attachment in socio-emotional development?

Attachment is an emotional bond with caregivers that provides comfort and security.

Who are key researchers in Attachment theory?

John Bowlby (ethological theory), Mary Ainsworth (Strange Situation), and Harry Harlow (monkey studies).

Describe Secure attachment.

The infant uses the caregiver as a secure base and shows happiness upon reunion.

Describe Insecure-avoidant attachment.

The infant is indifferent to the caregiver and avoids them.

Describe Insecure-resistant/ambivalent attachment.

The infant is clingy and upset, not easily soothed by the caregiver.

Describe Disorganized attachment.

The infant exhibits contradictory, fearful, and confused behaviors towards the caregiver.

What is the Strange Situation?

A laboratory procedure designed to test infant reactions to separations and reunions with a caregiver.

What is an Internal Working Model?

A mental representation of relationships that guides future attachment behaviors and expectations.

What is a Secure base in attachment theory?

The caregiver provides a sense of safety from which the infant can explore the environment.

What is Temperament?

Individual differences in the reactivity and emotional regulation of a child.

Who are notable researchers/theories on Temperament?

Thomas & Chess (easy, difficult, slow-to-warm-up categories); Rothbart (6 dimensions like activity, fear, attention); Kagan (inhibition).

What is Goodness of fit in relation to temperament?

The compatibility between a child's temperament and their environment.

What is Effortful control?

The voluntary regulation of one's own emotions and attention.

List the Basic emotions.

Happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, and disgust.

What are Self-conscious emotions?

Emotions like pride, guilt, and embarrassment that require a sense of self-awareness.

What are Social smiles?

Smiles directed toward caregivers, typically emerging between 6 weeks and 3 months of age.

What is Social referencing?

Using others' emotional cues to interpret and understand ambiguous situations.

How does Emotion regulation develop?

It evolves from initial caregiver-soothing to the child's own self-soothing behaviors.

What is the Still-face experiment (Tronick)?

A research paradigm demonstrating infant distress when a caregiver becomes unresponsive, highlighting the infant's need for synchronous interaction.

How does Maternal emotion talk influence development?

It supports the child's empathy and social understanding.

What is Moral goodness in infants?

An early concern for and willingness to help others, demonstrated in studies like helper-hinderer scenarios.

What is Moral understanding in infants?

Infants' preference for individuals who act as 'helpers' over 'hinderers', suggesting an innate sense of morality.

What is Moral retribution?

The desire to punish individuals who have engaged in wrongdoing.

What is the Ecological self?

An infant's awareness of their own body and its actions within the environment.

What is the Interpersonal self?

The recognition of reciprocal social interaction with others.

What is the Subjective self (“I”)?

The awareness of oneself as an acting agent or performer of actions.

What is the Objective self (“Me”)?

The ability to label and categorize oneself, such as developing a gender identity.

What are Single-touch vs. double-touch studies?

Research methods used to measure self-recognition in infants and toddlers.

When does Gender identity typically develop?

Around 2 years of age.

How do Cultural differences affect socio-emotional development?

Some cultures value emotional restraint, while others emphasize expressiveness, and attachment security may manifest differently across cultures.

Explain the concept of Developmental Cascades in socio-emotional development.

It describes how early experiences and foundational capacities build upon each other; for example, secure attachment leads to better emotion regulation, which fosters higher empathy and peer competence. Conversely, poor regulation or insecure attachment can increase the risk for later mood and anxiety issues.

How does Brain Development progress in early childhood?

Rapid brain growth: by age 6, brain is ~90% adult weight. Key processes include myelination, synaptic pruning, and neuroplasticity.

What is Myelination in brain development?

A process that leads to faster neural transmission and supports attention and planning.

What is Synaptic pruning?

The elimination of unused neural connections, which increases brain efficiency.

Explain Neuroplasticity.

The brain’s capacity to reorganize and adapt with experience.

What is the function of the Corpus callosum?

It links the two brain hemispheres and supports coordination.

What role does the Cerebellum play in development?

It is responsible for motor coordination and balance.

What are the functions of the Prefrontal cortex?

It supports executive function, working memory, and impulse control.

What are the components and functions of the Limbic system?

It includes the amygdala (emotion/fear), hippocampus (memory), and hypothalamus (stress/hormones).

What is the average physical growth rate in early childhood?

Children grow approximately ~3 inches and gain ~4.5 lbs per year.

What are Secular trends in growth?

Changes in growth patterns over generations due to factors like nutrition and health.

What is the role of the Pituitary gland in growth?

It produces growth and thyroid-stimulating hormones.

What is Psychosocial dwarfism?

Growth delays in a child caused by severe emotional deprivation.

How does Lead poisoning affect children?

It can negatively affect cognition and behavior.

What are Gross motor skills?

Large muscle movements like running, climbing, and jumping, which improve with balance.

What are Fine motor skills?

Precise movements like drawing, writing, and buttoning, which develop later in childhood.

What is Handedness and when does it typically develop?

A preference for using one hand, usually established by ~2 years of age and linked to brain lateralization.

What is Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)?

Difficulty in movement coordination that is not due to intellectual disability or neurological conditions.

How much sleep do young children typically need?

They typically need 10–12 hours of sleep, and sleep problems can affect attention and behavior.

What is common regarding eating patterns in early childhood?

Picky eating is common, and repeated exposure to foods can improve acceptance.

What are the risks associated with Malnutrition and Obesity in early childhood?

Both can affect cognitive and physical outcomes, with malnutrition causing growth delays and obesity leading to health issues.

How do Illness and mortality rates vary globally in early childhood?

They vary significantly; rates are lower in developed regions due to better healthcare and vaccination access.

What is Child maltreatment?

Physical, emotional, or sexual abuse, or neglect, which causes long-term developmental harm.

How do Developmental Cascades apply to physical health in early childhood?

Better physical health leads to improved cognitive and emotional regulation. Conversely, chronic stress or malnutrition can lead to delayed growth, emotional dysregulation, and weaker language and learning outcomes.

What is the Cephalocaudal pattern of motor development?

Control develops from the head downwards to the trunk and legs.

What is the Proximodistal pattern of motor development?

Control develops from the center of the body outwards to the extremities (e.g., shoulder before hand).