Class 1: concepts, approaches and debates

Terms

idenity

is a central and constant aspect of everyday life. people use various identity markers or labels to understand and express. who they are

externally assigned identity markers

attributed to an individual by external sources. like being labeled male or female at brith

self- identified identity markers

characteristic individuals chose to identify themselves. like choosing labels like “gay” or “bisexual” based on personal experience

identity categories are shaped by:

bodily traits: such as skin colour, age, sex or abilities

sociocultural features: like nationality, religion or class status

Richard Jenkins- identification

the systematic establishment and signification, between individuals, between collectives and between individuals and collective, of relationships pf similarity and difference

Richard Jenkins- identity

denotes the ways in which individuals and collectivities are distinguished in their relations with other individuals and collectivities

Richard Jenkins- dual process of identity formation

external identification by others: how society labels individuals

internal self- identification: how individuals perceive and define themselves

Richard Jenkins- culture dependent

identity is shaped by and relies on culture, which includes cultural artefacts, practices, and norms and values

cultural representation of identity

are shaped and circulated through popular media culture. they serve to:

• help individuals understand who they are by providing a sense of stability, clarity and belonging

• however, these identity labels often come with normative expectations that can limit personal expression and reinforce stereotypes

these representations are context- specific

social constructionist perspective

identity is social constructed, meaning it is shaped by cultural, historical and social context- not fixed or universal

• this perspective has been influential since the 1970s

social constructionist perspective- rejection of essentialism

essentialism assumes identities are natural, biological and unchanging, and that all people with a given identity share the same experiences

social constructionist perspective argues:

while it acknowledges and objective reality, it emphasises that our understanding of identity is culturally and socially shaped

identities are fluid and dynamic, shaped by interpretation, social interaction, and media representation- not predetermined or static

sociocultural diversity

encompasses differences in gender, sexuality, race , ethnicity, class and ability

although sometimes seen as neutral, it is deeply political, entangled with power dynamics and inequality

discursive constructions of identity

some identities are constructed as “normal” or “superior”, while other are deemed “deviant” or “inferior”.

identity is often framed in binary and hierarchical terms

these constructions: simplify identities, ignoring internal diversity.

reinforces structural inequalities in culture and institutions

identity politics

“The forging of ‘new languages’ of identity
combined with acting to change social practices, usually
through the formation of coalitions where at least some
values are shared”- Barker
it can empower marginalised groups by celebrating shared identity- but also risks essentialism, and ignoring differences within the group.

identity politics- strategic essentialism

using shared identity for unity and action, while still recognising intersections (e.g. race, class, disability etc. )

#MeToo

founded by Tarana Burke to support women of colour facing sexual violence

• went viral in 2017 via Alyssa Milano’s tweet

• exposed media bias: white celebrities received more attention, celebrity capital gave them platform power.

• women in vulnerable positions often lacked means to speak out

• reflects Crenshaw’s intersectionality, showing how overlapping identities (race, gender, class) shape unequal experiences of oppression

Crenshaw- intersectionality

introduced intersectionality in 1991 in her article mapping the margins

• she explores how racism and sexism intersect in the lives of women of colour, making their experiences distinct from white women or men of colour.

• the valued identity politics for its unifying power but criticised its tendency to ignore differences within identity groups

Crenshaw- intersectionality conclusion

• intersectionality is crucial to understand overlapping oppressions

• identify categories like “women” or “people of colour” are only useful if they account for internal diversity

• her centre defines intersectionality as: a dynamic strategy for linking the grounds of discrimination to the historical, social, economic and legal contexts that create systems of oppression and privilege

three forms of intersectionality- structural intersectionality

how race and gender intersect in social structures to disadvantage women of colour differently than white women

three forms of intersectionality- political intersectionality

highlights how feminist and anti- racist movements often fail to address the intersecting oppressions experience by women of colour

• women of colour might feel excluded or forced to chose between political struggles.

three forms of intersectionality- representational intersectionality

focuses on how media and cultural portrayals reinforce stereotypes about women of colour.

• encourages using intersectionality to critically assess how groups are represented and perceived

case study: 2 Live Crew

hip- hop group 2 Live Crew was charged with obscenity for their album As Nasty as They Wanna Be:

• Crenshaw’s analysis revealed how the debate ignored intersectional dynamics

feminist critique

• claimed the music was misogynistic and harmful to women, but ignored racialised framing

• criticism: white rock bands were not prosecuted for similar content.

anti- racist defence

• argued the lyrics were satirical and challenged stereotypes of black masculinity

• criticism: overlooked the music’s sexism and impact on women

• Anti-racist prism dismisses (gendered) power relations
  • Humour: punching up or punching down?

• Intra-group humour dismisses intersectional relationship: men
  mocking women to bond with other men

Crenshaw concludes:

• stressing that categories of identity are valuable if they factor in intersectional experiences

• sheds light on the unique experiences
  that are produced when various forms of discrimination intersect
  with these converging identities. It is a dynamic strategy for
  linking the grounds of discrimination (e.g., race, gender, class,
  sexual identity, etc.) to historical, social, economic, political, and
  legal contexts and norms that intertwine to create structures of
  oppression and privilege”

woke

• early 1900: used in black communities to urge awareness of racial injustice

• 1962: highlighted in a New York Times article by William Kelley

• 20th C: continued evolving but kept the meaning of being socially aware

• 2008: referenced in Badu’s song Master Teacher

• 2014: gained political momentum during the Ferguson protests with #StayWoke

• lack lives matter: solidified woke as a term for fighting systematic oppression

corporate wokeness

dual use:

• activists use “woke” to expose injustice: cooperation co-opt it for branding

• woke- washing: companies like Nike market social justice, but often fail to align internal practices with public messaging- a form of performative activism

woke- international resignification

global spread: countries like Belgium adopted woke in media in 2017 onward, first referencing U.S. issues. later adapting it to local justice debates

conservative backlash: the term has been redefined by critics to represent “excessive political correctness”, attacking. gender- inclusive language, representation initiative, revised terminiology

cancel culture

emerged from activist efforts to hold powerful figures accountable, especially oil politics, business and entertainment

goal was to expose and challenge behaviours like racism, sexism, homophobia and abuse.

key elements:

• accountability, withdrawal of support and social media’s role

criticism:

• can overshadow structural issues

• media often focuses on controversy rather than real reform- sensationalising backlash

field of study: communication sciences

• philosophical basis: post- positivst

• ontology: critical- realism

• epistemology: seeks partial objectivity, minimises bias

• goals:

  • explain, predict and control media phenomena

  • identify causal relationships

  • ensure validity and reliability through scientific methods

field of study: media and cultural studies

• philosophical basis: interpretative and critical perspectives

interpretative (constructivist) approach:

• ontology: social constructionism (multiple realities exist)

• epistemology: knowledge is subjective, shaped by interaction

• goals:

  • understand how people make sense of the world

  • reject universal truths or predictions

  • emphasis context and lived experience

critical approach:

• shares elements of social constructionist nd critical realism

• focus: expose and challenge power structures (race, gender, class)

• goal: use research as a tool for emancipation and social change

• assumes that equality is ideologically maintained, not natural

comparison: communication science and media and cultural studies

communication science:

• goal: predict and explain

• view of reality: objective (but limited)

• approach to knowledge: partial objectivity

• research aim: empirical, generalisable findings

Media and cultural studies:

• goal: understand and transform

• view of reality: socially constructed

• approach to knowledge: subjective and critical

• research aim: contextual insights, social change

communication science: realism and socialisation

developed in the 1950-60s, grounded in post- positivist through. based on two key assumptions.

media should reflect society:

• expected to mirror society

• scholars use quantitative methods to: compare media content to real world and critique distortions in how marginalised identities are portrayed.

• rooted in critical realism: assumes an objective reality that can be partially known and measured.

media influence socialisation:

• media affect how people perceive social groups

• short- term effects

• long- term effects: cultivation theory (Gerbner): heavy TV viewing shapes beliefs about society, lack of representation leads to symbolic annihilation. frequent exposure can reinforce sexist and stereotypical attitudes.

criticism of this approach:

• media images are not neutral

• subjectivity of realism: reality is not the same for everyone

• focuses too much on visible content, ignoring hidden meaning and deeper cultural biases.

• overemphasises media effects: ignores how audiences actively interpret, resist or reinterpret messages

media and cultural studies: ideology and sense- making

originated from British Cultural studies. focuses on how culture reflects and shapes power relations and ideologies

culture is ideological:

• influenced by Marxism: media produce and reinforces dominant ideologies

• not just reflecting reality but about sharing how people think about social norms

• early focus on class expanded to include race, gender, sexuality etc.

audiences make meaning in complex ways. Staurt Hall encoding/decoding model.

• media producers encode messages based on ideology

• audiences decode them in multiple ways

  • dominant reading: fully accept

  • negotiated meaning: partially accept, partially challenges

  • oppositional reading: actively resist

• emphasises that audiences are not passive

criticisms:

• too focused on text: may neglect how people actually use or engage with media

• overemphasis on resistance

• limited attention to media creators and the conditions under which content is made

politics of representation

Stuart Hall on representation:

• definition: the production of meaning through language

• social construction: meanings are constructed based on time and place, and they are not neutral- they carry ideological weight

politics of representation:

• dual role: can reinforce the sociocultural status quo, and serve as a tool to challenge dominant hegemonic ideas

• popular culture impact: TV shows, comedy and social media actively articulate and circulate norms and values

• dynamic process: meaning are continuously renegotiated

critical/ emancipatory representations:

• independent platforms: independent organisations offer space to highlight marginalised identities

• mainstream examples: while mainstream media can offer authentic portrayals their efforts must be critical assessed.

investment in diversity:

• ambiguous commitment: to always clear if initiatives are driven by genuine efforts for social change or are merely performative

• social change vs image: true commitment involves elevating marginalised voices, mere representation can become a superficial branding tool.

stereotyping - Walter Lipman

Walter Lippmann

• mental shortcuts- we define before we see

• they simplify a complex world, saving time but relying on preconceived ideas

• we often substitute cultural assumptions for real understanding

stereotypes- Richard Dyer

• stereotypes have both social (organising) and ideological (power- preserving) functions

• they maintain hierarchies by: presenting social categories as fixed and natural. reflecting majority (in- group) values while marginalising out- groups. reinforcing partial truths and rigid assumptions

Dyer on stereotypes in Popular Fiction

• social types: open- ended, norm- following individuals

• stereotypes: one- dimensional, excluded from social norms.

two modes of stereotyping in fiction:

• through iconography: use visual or auditory cues to signify identity. simplifies storytelling but often reproduces cliches.

• through narrative structure:

  • static structures: reinforce nominal norms.

  • dynamic structures: reinforce stereotypes through plot outcomes

case study: sex and the city 2

stereotyping through iconography

• use of free zones- what they consider freedom, only western women are free

• want to be educational- but in the end just shallow and trying to make fun (about Nikab), question the educational element

• dynamic of what is allowed to be different, level of diversity we tolerate

• the “exotic” idea

• entertainment, attraction, orientalist image, becomes a sceptical

• the Indian music-→ says a Loy about the production and how serious they take the matter, do not challenge the audience, lazy introduction just a orientalist image

• not cellphone service

• orientalist by Edward Said

transcoding by Stuart Hall

definition: re- appropriating existing meanings to challenge stereotypes and discrimination

goal: change how marginalised groups are represented on media acroios race, gender, class, sexuality and disability

overall takeaway:

• trans- coding is a powerful media tool, but comes with challenges

  • avoid replacing one stereotype with another

  • ensure positive images do not mask structural inequalities

  • focus on transforming narratives, not just tweaking them

three main trans- coding strategies:

reversing stereotypes

tactic: turn negative portrayals into dominant or heroic roles

issue: risks replacing old stereotypes with extreme opposites, reinforces the otherness

inclusion of positive images

strength: offers affirmative representation

criticism: may avoid structural critique and commodify diversity without addressing deeper issues

through the eye of representation

approach: use familiar media forms to subvert and reshape meaning from within

key concept: polysemy: meanings are not foxed, they depend on interpretation

case study: this is America

dual audience:

• speaks to black audiences through lived experiences

• confronts withe audiences with uncomfortable truths

themes:

• contrasts gun ownership vs. disregard for black lives

• critique media spectacle and cultural appropriation

• ambiguous ending symbolises continued racial struggle

• Juxtaposing positive (e.g. dancing scenes)
  and negative images (Jim Crow stereotype),
  while revealing both to be stereotypical images

• Embodiment of stereotypes: inability to escape past, collective memory

• State of America: in limbo, blind to structural inequalities, police
  brutality, gun violence (e.g. Charleston Church Shooting)
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