biodiversity and conservation exam 3

(new content)Ex situ conservation

Ex situ conservation

Keeping species in captivity can be a last chance to maintain and rehabilitate a species

Ex- off sight

Zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens

Can be a haven for vulnerable species

Last option for species extinct in the wild, only place we can keep it safe sometimes

Support research into the basic biology of species at risk

Play a key role in public education

Sites for captive breeding

Are zoos, aquariums and botanical gardens the most effective conservation method?

May focus on charismatic organisms instead of ecologically important species

What draws the public in

Costs can be much higher than protecting habitat

Survival of parents & offspring born in captivity can be low

Sometimes we have higher expectations

Captive populations may be too small for conservation needs, can't always do what needs to be done

What are the ethical implications of zoos, aquariums and botanic gardens?

What are in these facilities, is it all local species, was it imported and exotic

Complicated based on how the collection was built

Captive breeding

Enhance reproduction of species at risk with a goal of reintroduction

Use genetic approaches to increase genetic diversity, reduce inbreeding

Breeding is intentional

Headstarting

Raising vulnerable younger stages in captivity, then releasing into the wild

Support the young through their juvenile stages

Seedlings

Egg-laying species

Common with turtles\

Gene banks

DNA of at risk or extinct species

For assisted reproduction, cloning, rewilding

Seed banks

Save seeds for future germination

Species at risk

Agricultural landraces

Reintroduction

Captive-bred or wild-caught individuals released into historic range

Reinforcement

Individuals added to a small population to increase size and genetic diversity

Not extinct but extremely small

Assisted colonization

Captive-bred or wild-caught individuals moved to a new suitable area

Potential roadblocks to species restorations

Cause of decline still present in area

Problems with small populations (Few individuals, Low genetic diversity)

Loss of behaviors important for survival in the wild (Finding food, habitat, mates, avoiding predators)

public opposition

California Condor

First began to dwindle in the early 1900s due to hunting and habitat loss. Adult mortality due to lead poisoning. Condors consume carcasses of animals left behind by hunters using lead bullets

By 1982, only 19 California condors remained in the wild. Remaining wild condors were brought into captivity. Through captive breeding and release efforts, populations have reach 566 individuals, 369 in the wild. Cost of reintroduction: >$45 million

However, reintroduced condors were suffering from lead poisoning. Blood chemistry shows that the source of the lead was ammunition rather than pollution

In 2013, after a long public debate, California banned lead ammunition. In 2015, more condors were born in the wild than died

Is it worth it? - It was very expensive, but the ban on lead may indirectly be beneficial. They are growing and were successfully reintroduced

wolves to Yellowstone

Wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone in 1930s. From 1995-1997, 41 wolves from Canada and Montana were reintroduced. Park Service researchers have been tracking the wolves, their prey and the other plants and animals in Yellowstone ever since

Since the reintroduction, wolves have increased dramatically in the greater Yellowstone area. Wolf populations within the park have stabilized

Wolves eat a wide range of mammalian prey. In Yellowstone, 90% of their prey are elk. The majority of the elk they kill are calves. Change in elk populations can impact the plants they consume

Significant increases in tree size since the wolf introduction. Elk prefer consuming saplings. A trophic cascade? Changes in plant populations affect other animals. Increases in beavers likely due to more/larger trees. Increases in bison likely due to less competition for forag

But is this the whole story?Do wolves indirectly increase willow growth by reducing browsing by elk? 10-year experiment manipulated browsing and hydrology. Willows only grew significantly when sites were dammed. Tree size has been increasing since before wolves were reintroduced

Other factors are at play. Annual tree growth is related to herbivory. Annual tree growth is not xfrelated to risk of predation. The other part is probably hydrological and related to the presence of other organisms. Suggests other factors are going on besides wolves

Genetic diversity of small populations

Species at risk tend to have lower levels of heterozygosity than non-vulnerable related species due to population size

One of the challenges we face with species at risk is that they are already dealing with lower heterozygosity

A genetic approach to conservation

Genetics can help to determine:

• how many individuals need to be protected (Ne)

• which populations are most vulnerable

• the size and structure of protected areas

• the management of captive breeding populations

Genetic diversity can be increased in captivity by swapping males between conservation areas; here a giraffe is prepared for transport

What actions/strategies increase gene flow?

Migration/Dispersal: Individuals moving (e.g., animals, insects) or passive dispersal (wind, water carrying seeds/pollen) to new populations.

Pollination: Wind, water, or animals moving pollen between plants, mixing genetic material. genetic rescue?

Habitat Connectivity: Creating corridors or reducing barriers (like roads) to allow natural migration between fragmented habitats.

Genetic Rescue: Deliberately introducing individuals from other populations (or captive-bred stock) to small, inbred populations to boost genetic diversity and fitness.

Intentional Movement: Moving animals for breeding programs or planting diverse plant varieties to introduce new genes.

Managing Invasive Species: While often negative, managing invasive species can introduce new genetic material, but usually, the goal is containment.

genetic rescue

An increase in population fitness due to the contribution of genes from immigrants

Increased population size or growth rate

Mechanisms of genetic rescue:

heterosis & adaptive evolution

Heterosis

increased fitness of offspring from genetically different parents

Adaptive evolution

increase in a phenotype that benefits the population due to natural selection; phenotype is the result of newly introduced genes

Genetic restoration

Increase in genetic variation with no change in population fitness

Evolutionary rescue

Increase in population fitness due to an environmental shift, which selects for a new beneficial phenotype

Genetic variation due to mutation, immigration, recombination

leads to increased fitness through a shift in the fitness optimum, immigration isn’t required

Successful genetic rescue

The Florida panther began experiencing population declines in the mid-20th century. Listed as endangered in 1967, by 1990s only 20-25 adults in Florida. Reduced genetic variation suggested inbreeding

Phenotypic evidence of inbreeding:

• Poor sperm quality, low T

• Poor fecundity

• Heart defects

In 1995, 8 females from TX translocated into FL population. 22 original panthers (CFP) and 4 from the Everglades (EVG). Historical gene flow between the states. Microsatellite data from 1978-2009 used to examine genetic diversity and fitness. Number of panther increased dramatically

Recent individuals include admixed, TX crosses and TX backcrosses. Few original CFP genotypes left. Increased numbers correlate with increased heterozygosity. Data from radio-tracked panthers in FL reveal that individuals with higher heterozygosity have higher rates of surviva. F1 generation better survival rate. Heterozygouisty may have better fitness

Inbreeding depression

Reproduction between closely related individuals results in reduced fitness of offspring. Expression of deleterious recessive traits. Reduced genetic diversity

Outbreeding depression

Reproduction between genetically distant individuals results in reduced fitness of offspring

New genes create phenotypes that are not adapted for local conditions

More likely to occur with

• Higher genetic distinction between populations

• Increased distance between populations

• Populations from different environments

Outbreeding depression has been reported less frequently than benefits from outcrossing

Restoration ecology:

Scientific field that applies ecological principles to the study and practice of restoration

Ecological restoration

The practice of facilitating the recovery of ecosystems that have been degraded or destroyed

Restoration approaches

No action: Passive, lets ecosystem recover on its own

Rehabilitation: Create productive ecosystem, may not match original ecosystem (like composition)

Partial restoration: Some original species restored (dominant/resilient)

Complete restoration: Restore original species and processes

Different restoration goals, different methods

A small wetland that feeds into a salt marsh has been altered by the addition of a dam. The dam has also altered nutrient availability for riparian plants, leading to plant invasions

• Goal: get rid of invasive plants

• Chop them down

• Yank things up

Another scenario about water filtration

• Goal: restore filtration process

• May find that nonnative plants may be better

The dam reduces woody debris which creates habitat for fish

• To restore fish habitats, logs could be artificially added downstream

Reference site

When possible, a nearby site that is not degraded or damaged can serve as an example of what the restored community should resemble

To restore habitat along the river in Milwaukee, planners used reference sites from nearby forested areas

Historical conditions

Restoration to historical conditions may be recommended if damage has been long-term (e.g., conversion of land for agriculture)

Which historical conditions should be used?

• North America before European settlement?

• North America before human colonization?

Higgs et al. 2014

argues to reconsider the role of historical knowledge in restoration

• to provide baseline info

• Chance to right wrongs (e.g., overharvesting)

• Plan for future by examining ecological disturbance patterns

• Natural experiments to help predict future scenarios

Restoration processes: Facilitation

Being mindful about the plants we are planting during restoration process

Some plants can support the establishment and growth of others

Nitrogen-fixing plants improve soil quality

Nurse plants can provide better microclimates

Plants that attract pollinators and dispersers to the area can help the reproduction and spread of other species

Restoration processes: Bioremediation

Restoration of polluted aquatic or terrestrial habitats using biological agents

• Oil, components of gasoline, heavy metals

Some bacteria and fungi can detoxify or store toxins, removing them from the environment

Plants called hyper-accumulators take up high concentrations of heavy metals and store them in tissue

• Have become this way through natural selection

• Take out the toxins and metals from the environment and store them

Restoration processes: Rewilding

top - down

Setting up something more sustainable, can’t go to site every time

The reintroduction of certain animal species can restore key ecosystem processes

• Grazers and decomposer change nutrient cycling

• Dispersers change distribution of plants

• Filter-feeders change water quality

• Ecosystem engineers change habitat structure

This can support habitat and community restoration

Restoring Chesapeake Bay

Seagrass meadows in Chesapeake Bay decimated by slime mold and hurricanes

• Habitat for bay scallops, blue crab, striped bass

• Major marine carbon sink

Since 2008, volunteers collect eelgrass shoots to headstart and replant

Signs of recovery in eelgrass restoration sites off the Eastern Shore of Virginia

Very labor intensive process

Restoring Tallgrass Prairie

<4% of tallgrass prairie remains, mostly in small remnants

Efforts to restore tallgrass prairie began in the 1970s

Comparing 300 ha restored area (open circles) to 3 remnant prairie sites

Alpha diversity is still lower than remnant prairie sites 10 years after restoration

Reclaiming the boreal forest

Oil sands extraction is extremely destructive to the boreal forest ecosystem in Canada

Since the 1980s, oil companies have been required to reclaim wetlands destroyed by mining

New wetlands do not have the same biodiversity and carbon sequestration capacity as previous ecosystem

Move in the right direction but conversation about if it is greenwashing (is it just advertising or is it making a difference)

1988 – International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is established

All countries that participate in the UN may have a representative (currently 195 member states)

Reports written by volunteer climate science experts

1992 – Rio Summit

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) established to stabilize anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases

Convention on Biological Diversity

1997 - Kyoto Protocol

More formal commitment to reducing greenhouse gases

Set specific emissions goals for 6 greenhouse gases:

CO2, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons & perfluorocarbons, sulphur hexafluoride

Obligations to cut greenhouse gases differed between developed and developing nations

Lots of countries signed and ratified but not all were able to meet targets or didn’t try to

North amarica and canada were problems

Targets met by 38 countries.

Large developing nations (China and India) and non-participation by North America continued to push emissions up

2015 – Paris Agreement

Goal to keep global warming below 2°C above pre-industrial levels

Restrict emissions and work towards removal of greenhouse gases

20/20/20 targets

CO2 by 20%

renewable energy by 20%

energy efficiency by 20%

Country-specific targets

US withdrew from Paris Agreement on

November 4, 2020. On Feb 19, 2021, the US rejoined the Paris Agreement.

November 2021 – Glasgow Climate Pact (COP26)

Nearly 200 countries agreed to:

Begin reducing use of coal (“phase down”)

Start eliminating fossil fuel subsidies

Funding to help lowest income countries becomenclimate resilient

New rules for carbon accounting

Report progress annually

November 10-21, 2025 – Brazil (COP30)

Key goals include:

Creating a sustainable plan for putting climate goals from previous COP meetings into action

Updated national goals for CO2 emission reduction

More tangible plan to finance global goals

Of note: US federal government did not send representatives

How do we meet climate policy goals?

The primary goal is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to slow global warming

This must be done while accounting for:

The continued need for energy

Food security and human health

Economic disparity between countries

Conservation of biodiversity

What do we need to do to meet these goals?

Tallis et al. 2018

Fossil fuel and CO2 emissions

• Less CO2 in atmosphere in sustainability

• Less people exposed to polluted air

Energy production strategies

• Shift to solar or wind power: good for reducing fossil fuel but there is a larger footprint for installation

Land use for food production

• Want to get more efficient with crop production; growing crops where they are most productive

Fisheries management

• Manage sustainability of catching fish

• Don’t over fish, use maximum sustainable yield

What could limit the adoption of the Sustainability model?

Initial cost, expensive, lots of planning, organization, have to change a lot (we are habit creatures)

We know fossil fuels are reliable, how will these methods hold up

Playing the long game

Rudd et al 2021

explores historic and contemporary challenges that restrict the science and practice of conservation

Lots of international representation; in the truest sense (not just centered in one area of the world)

universities, government agencies, and NGOs. This diversity signals that the paper isn’t just an academic exercise—it reflects perspectives from people who actually implement conservation policy as well as those who study it.

How do conservation science and practice:Reflect colonial attitudes or actions?

Conservation has roots in colonial land management.

• Early conservation models—like creating national parks—were often based on the idea of “pristine wilderness,” which justified removing Indigenous communities from their own lands.

Western science was prioritized over Indigenous knowledge.

• Conservation policies frequently dismissed or invalidated Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK), assuming Western approaches were superior.

Conservation has sometimes enforced control rather than collaboration.

• Examples include militarized anti-poaching efforts or foreign NGOs dictating management decisions in the Global South without local involvement

How do conservation science and practice:Reflect exclusion of BIPOC community members?

Lack of representation in conservation leadership.

Most major conservation organizations and academic research groups remain disproportionately white, limiting diverse perspectives in decision-making.

Historic mistrust.

Because conservation has displaced Indigenous and Black communities in the past, many BIPOC individuals have been excluded or harmed by policies intended to “protect nature.”

Access barriers.

Outdoor recreation, fieldwork, and environmental careers often require resources (travel, gear, time, financial flexibility) that have historically been less accessible to marginalized groups.

What aspects of the academic environment contribute to the exclusion of BIPOC community members?

Gatekeeping and elitism.

• High costs of education, unpaid internships, and reliance on volunteer fieldwork disproportionately exclude students without financial support.

Hidden curriculum.

• Networking, research positions, and faculty mentorship often favor students who already understand academic systems—usually those from privileged backgrounds.

Lack of representation among faculty.

• When students don’t see people of similar backgrounds in positions of authority, it discourages entry and retention in the field.

Bias in research priorities.

• Funding often goes to projects led by established (often white) scientists, and topics directly affecting marginalized communities receive less attention or are framed from an outsider perspective.

Classroom culture and microaggressions.

• Subtle bias, stereotyping, or dismissive comments can create unwelcoming learning environments for BIPOC students.

Ecological consequences of racism in cities

Systemic racism affects genetic diversity and Ne of urban animals

What mechanisms drive the differences?

Sampling density is lower in redlined areas

Challenges with using citizen science data to detect patterns of diversity

Biodiversity can be positively correlated with wealth, though this is not a universal trend

Less vegetation in low-income areas leads to heat islands

Low-income communities and communities of color more likely to experience air and water pollution

The legacy of redlining affects the health of ecosystems and communities

A Literal Moonshot

Hagedorn et al. proposes storing a collection of living cells in a lunar cryobank

In the deep craters of the moon

What seems logical?

• Different political climates, earth isn’t safe, research in jeopardy, instability

• Keep it cold naturally without mechanical system and energy source

What seems outlandish?

• Gonna send a bunch of stuff to the space station

• How are they gonna get the funds, huge and expensive project

• Legality and who owns what, whose in charge

Re-storing CO2

Carbon capture wil be an important strategy for limiting global climate change

Proposed tech:

• Vacuuming co2 from the atmosphere and injecting it into the earth

• Fertilizing the ocean to increase phytoplankton growth capturing carbon in their bodies

• Brining the ocean to increase its ph and elevate its ability to capture atmospheric co2

Ostrom’s components of sustainable management

Moderate ecosystem area

Scarcity of a key resource (so there is motivation to manage it)

Reasonably predictable ecosystem dynamics

Stationary units of resources (so they can be easily quantified)

Moderately sized human community

An influential leader

Shared moral and ethical standards

Knowledge of the socioeconomic system

High value for the key resource

Collective-choice rules (rules designed by the community)

Ostrom’s analyses suggest that:

Management is more successful when communities are part of the decision-making process

Protection must be hand-in-hand with resource use to gain traction

Sustainable management requires an understanding of biological processes and socioeconomic dynamics of an area

These ideas are designed for managing local resources at the local level

Changed the way we think about sustainable development and management

Decolonizing conservation

Long-term conservation strategies will be most successful with community collaboration

Consider impacts of conservation practices to the local economies and community wellbeing

Recognize and work to resolve environmental racism

Incorporate traditional ecological knowledge into conservation planning