Revolutions (1750-1900)

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Adam Smith

-Political economist and philosopher; Founder of "invisible hand"
-Wealth of Nations lays foundations of free-market economic theory
-Advocates Laissez Faire ("to leave alone")

John Stuart Mill

-Protection of rights of people, advocate for workers right to organize, equality for women, and universal suffrage.
-Proponent of classical Liberalism
-Utilitarianism: Govt. actions deemed useful if they promote greatest good for the greatest amount of people

Karl Marx

-German philosopher, economist, and revolutionary
-Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, help form basis for all communist theory, have influence on social sciences, explain historical development of contradictory economic force interacting.
-predicted violent proletariat revolution and withering of the govt.

Thomas Malthus

-English economist
-Argued that population increase would outgrow increases in means of subsistence (1766-1834)

18th c Agricultural Revolution

-Increase in agricultural production because of increase in labor and land productivity (mid 17th & late 19th cent.)
-crop rotation: rotating of fields, avoid soil exhaustion
-Robert Bakewell: Pioneer of selective animal breeding, bred for certain traits
-Enclusures: joined small landholdings into smaller number of larger farms (18th cent, England)
-Jethro Tull: English inventor, developed seed drill & advocated to use horses

Potato Famine

-(1840s) one of worst famines
-Plant fungus kills most potatoes, which Irish peasants relied on
-leads to massive famine & mass immigration to US, Canada, & Australia.

Industrial Revolution

-Series of industrial tech. improvements, transforms process of manufactured goods.
-Eli Whitney: American Inventor, develops cotton gin, (leads to mass inc. of cotton production) and introduces it thru development of interchangeable parts in gun-making.
-Richard Arkwright: Invented Water Frame, spins several threads at once
-James Watt: Inventor, improved steam engine

Transportation Revolution

-Period new methods of transportation -> increase in speed and convenience of travel
-George Stephenson: English railway pioneer, 1825: built 1st passenger railway
-Robert Fulton: designed 1st commercially successful steam boat & 1st steam warship.

Second Industrial Revolution

-Dev. of chemical, electrical, oil, & steel industries
-mass prod. of food & clothes, popularized cinema & radio
-Inc. of employment & production
-Bessemer Process: cheap & fast way to make better steal, dev.: 1850
-Thomas Edison: Invented electric light bulb, acoustic recording on wax cylinders, & motion pictures
-Samuel Morse: patented telegraph, creator of Morse Code
-Alexander Graham Bell: invented telephone (1876)
-Gugliemo Marconi: sent radio waves across the Atlantic, 1901

Reform Bill of 1832

-British legislation, extends vote to most male members of middle class.

Cottage industry/Putting-out system

-System of textile manufacturing, laborers worked in homes or workshops thru merchant intermediaries or workshop owners.
-Production held over by marginalized guilds

Utopian Socialism

-Introduced by Frenchman Charles Fourier (early 19th)
-Utopian socialists hoped to create human alternatives to industrial capitalism by building self-sustaining communities where citizens work together.

Corporation

-A business owned by stockholders, who share profits but not responsible for its debts.
-Unilever Corporation: British-Dutch transnational consumer goods comp., began harvesting palm oil in Brit. W. Africa

King Louis XVI
(1754-93)

-Last king of France (1774-92) in Bourbon monarchs line before French Rev. of 1789
-Monarchy abolished on Sept. 21,1792
- Louis & Marie-Antoinette charged with counterrevolution and guillotined.

Maximilien Robespierre

-Served in National Assembly, called for universal male suffrage & abolition of slavery & capital punishment
-wanted to create new deistic civic religion
-Caused radical phase of the Revolution ("Reign of Terror"- 1000s executed for "dishonesty")

Napoleon Bonaparte

-French general, political leader, and emperor (1804)
-Rose thru army & govt. ranks
-Napoleonic Code (1804): body of French civil codes, influenced by Napoleon's view of French Rev., served as model for other codes. Nap's most enduring achievement.
-Continental system: policy preventing trade w/ Britain & Europe, goal: destroy Brit's economy
-Peninsular War: France loses, Spain wins, weakens Nap
-Loss of Battle of Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena

Proletariat and Bourgeoisie

-P: Marx's term for the working class, mass of workers
-B: Upper middle class, merchants, industrialists
-Both struggled for power thru out Europe

Conservatives, Liberals, Radicals

-3 forces, struggled for supremacy
-Conservative: Traditional attitudes & values, cautious about change & innovation
-Liberal: Open to change & new behaviors or opinions, rule of law, rights of citizens, private property, & rep. democracy, derived from enlightenment.
-Radical: Favors drastic political, economic, or social reforms.

Mary Wollstonecraft

-British feminist (18th cent)
-1792, wrote "Vindication of the Rights of Women." where she argued for women's equality with men and in voting.

Olympe de Gouges

-Proponent of democracy
-Demanded same rights for women as men wanted
-1791, wrote "Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen", challenged male authority and notion of male-female inequality, later guillotined.

Enlightenment

- Philosophical movement started in Europe, emphasized reason & scientific method
- E. writers focused on Govt., ethics, science, rather than emotions, imagination, or religion.
- Many rejected traditional religions for Deism (natural laws w/ direct intervention of God)

Voltaire (1694-1778)

-French philosopher
-Freedom of speech=best weapon against bad govt.
-Spoke out against the French govt. corruption and Catholic Church's intolerance.

Montesquieu( 1689-1755)

-Wrote 'Spirit of the Laws' -no single set of political laws applicable to all, depends on relationship and variable
-Advocate for separation of executive, legislative, & judicial powers.

John Locke
(1632-1704)

-Wrote 'Two Treatises of Government' - "human nature, natural rights of life, liberty, 7 property"
-said The Govt. was created to protect these rights, if the Govt. fails, the people are allowed to rebel.

Rousseau
(1712-1778)

-"Society threatens natural rights & freedoms"
-Wrote about society's corruption caused by science & art revivals & "The Social Contract"

OPTIONAL:
-Sponsored by wealthy and soon denounced them

Congress of Vienna
(1815)

-1. Enacted settlement, acceptable for both victors & France
-2. Balance of power created til German's unification, 1871
-3. Underestimated Liberalism & Nationalism
-4. Used legitimacy to restore Bourbons to throne
-5. United Belgium w/ Netherlands -> Kingdom
-6. loose confederation of 39 German states, dominated by Austria
-Klemens von Metternich: most influential at the Congress, foreign Minister of Austria

French Revolution
(1789)

-French middle & lower classes overthrow king & assert power for themselves
-Inspos: America's Indep. & Enlightenment Ideas
-Declaration of the Rights of Man & the Citizen (1789): Outlined what was considered to be natural rights & rights that citizens possessed by Natural Assembly (except women)

Haitian Revolution
(1791-1804)

-Led by former slave Toussaint l'Ouverture ->overthrew French colonial rule on Haiti
-Set up 1st black Govt. in W. Hemisphere & world's 2nd democratic republic
-Inspos: Dec. of the Rights of Man, prompted selling of Louisiana Purchase.

Mexican War of Independence

-MX fights to overthrow Spanish, succeed, independence gained in 1821
-sparked by Father Hidalgo: Mexican priest, est. independence movement among natives & mestizos, capture & executed.
-Austin Iturbide: Conservative Creole officer, secures independence, combined forces enter MX city, proclaimed emperor of MX.

South American Revolutions

-Epidemic of revolutions, prompted by Creole & mestizo unhappiness w/ Spanish rule, sparked by Peninsular War
-Leaders: Simon Bolivar (led military forces) & Jose de San Martin (protector of Peru)
-Leads to US purchasing Florida & the Monroe Doctrine (Europe can't interfere w/ W. Hemisphere affairs, seen as threat to US if they do)

Seneca Falls Convention

-Upperstate NY, 1848
-Women of all ages & some men went to discuss women's rights & conditions
-Wrote Declaration of Sentiments
-Organizers: Elizabeth Cady Stanton & Lucretia Mott

Italian Unification

-1870, constitutional monarchy: Piedmont-Sardinia
-Camilo Cavour: Italy's prime minister, pushed for Italian unification
-Garibaldi: Italian patriot, conquest of Sicily & Naples -> Italian state
-Mazzini: political nationalist, starts Young Italy group, promotes independence & est. of a national state, inspiration to nationalist movements in Italy + more

Crimean War (1853-1856)

-Conflict between Russian & Ottoman, fought primarily in Crimean peninsula
-Brit. & France ally & send troops to help Ottomans to prevent Russian expansion
-Russian defeat -> reforms & modernization
-Florence Nightingale: Founder of Modern Nursing during CW, began nursing edu.

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)

-Chancellor of Prussia, 1862-1871, then C. of Germany
-conservative nationalist
-Led Prussia to victory against Austria (1866) & France (1870, Franco-Persian War)
-Created German Empire
-Promoted Realpolitik, AKA "The Politics of reality", use of armies & power politics to achieve foreign policy goals.
-called for Berlin Conference

Congress of Berlin 1878

-Partial ÷ of Turkish possessions in Euro.
-Austria/Hungary: right to occupy & administer Bosnia & Herzegovina
-Serbia & Romania: independent, part of Bulgaria won local autonomy
-Ottos continue important Balkan holdings
-Bismarck angers Russian nationalists -> Bismark defensive military alliance w/ Austria against Russia, 1879
-Germany claims new role on world stage

Greek Independence in 1830

-many writers attracted in hopes to revive the ancient democracy.
-Assisted by Britain, France, & Russia to drive troops out of Greece and gain independence in 1829 & 1830
-Establish Greek kingdom