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Critical Thinking
Examines assumptions, appraises the source, discerns hidden biases, evaluates evidence, and asses conclusions.
Empiricism
The idea that what we know comes from experience, and that observation and experimentation enable scientific knowledge.
Wilhelm Wundt
Creator of an experimental apparatus that measured how long it took for people to press a telegraph key after hearing a ball hit a platform. He also established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig, Germany.
G. Stanley Hall
Wilhelm Wundt's student who, in 1883, established the first formal U.S. psychology laboratory at John Hopkins University.
Edward Bradford Titchener
Wilhelm Wundt's student who joined the Cornell University faculty and introduced structuralism. He used introspection to search for the mind's structural elements.
Structuralism
An early school of thought promoted by Wundt and Titchener; used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind.
Introspection
The process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one's own psychological processes.
Functionalism
An early school of thought promoted by James and influenced by Darwin; explored how mental and behavioral processes function--how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.
William James
Philosopher-psychologist who thought it would be more fruitful to consider the evolved functions of our thoughts and feelings.
James was a legendary teacher-writer who authored an important 1890 psychology text. He mentored Catkins.
Charles Darwin
Influential English evolutionary theorist
Mary Whiton Calkins
Became a pioneering memory researcher and the first woman to be president of the American Psychological Association.
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman to receive a psychology Ph.D., synthesized animal behavior research in 'The Animal Mind' (1908).
Behaviorism
The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).
John Watson
Working with Rayner, he championed psychology as the scientific study of behavior. In a controversial study on a baby who became famous as "Little Albert," he and Rayner showed that fear could be learned.
B.F. Skinner
This leading behaviorist rejected introspection and studied how consequences shape behavior.
Sigmund Freud
The controversial ideas of this famed personality theorist and therapist have influenced humanity's self-understanding.
Humanistic Psychology
A historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential.
Carl Rogers
A humanistic psychologist who found behaviorism and Freudian psychology too limited. Humanistic psychology was led by him and Abraham Maslow.
Abraham Maslow
A humanistic psychologist who found behaviorism and Freudian psychology too limited. Humanistic psychology was led by him and Carl Rogers.
Cognitive Psychology
The scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs
Jean Piaget
Known for his theory of cognitive development in children
Nature vs. Nurture
Name for a controversy in which it is debated whether genetics or environment is responsible for driving behavior
Natural Selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits.
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection
Behavior Genetics
How much our genes and our environment influence our individual differences
Culture
Beliefs, customs, and traditions of a specific group of people.
Positive Psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
biological psychology
a branch of psychology concerned with the links between biology and behavior
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
developmental psychology
a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
applies research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
industrial-organizational psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
human factors psychology
a branch of psychology that explores how people and machines interact and how machines and physical environments can be made safe and easy to use
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who sometimes provide medical (for example, drug) treatments as well as psychological therapy
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
experimental psychologists
Psychologists who explore behavior and thinking with experiments
audition
the sense or act of hearing
frequency
the number of complete wavelengths that pass in a given time (for example, per second)
pitch
a tone's experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency
middle ear
the chamber between the eardrum and cochlea containing three tiny bones (hammer, anvil, and stirrup) that concentrate the vibrations of the eardrum on the cochlea's oval window
cochlea
a coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear; sound waves traveling through the cochlear fluid trigger nerve impulses
inner ear
the innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea, semicircular canals, and vestibular sacs
sensorineural hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea's receptor cells or the auditory nerves; also called nerve deafness
conduction hearing loss
hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound waves to the cochlea
cochlear implant
a device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory here through electrodes threaded into cochlea
place theory
in hearing, the theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea's membrane is stimulated
frequency theory
in hearing, the theory that the rate of nerve impulses traveling up the auditory nerve matches the frequency of a tone, thus enabling us to sense its pitch
gate-control theory
the theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass on to the brain. The "gate" is opened by the activity of pain signals traveling up small nerve fibers and is closed by activity in larger fibers or by information coming from the brain
kinesthesia
the system for sensing the position and movement of individual body parts
vestibular sense
the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance
sensory interaction
the principle that one sense may influence another, as when the smell of food influences its taste
embodied cognition
in psychological science, the influence of bodily sensations, gestures, and other states on cognitive preferences and judgements
olfaction
the sense of smell
Conciousness
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment
Hypnosis
A social interaction in which one person (the subject) responds to another person's (the hypnotist's) suggestions that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
Posthypnotic suggestion
A suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors.
Dissociation
A split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.
Circadian rhythm
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24 hour cycle.
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
Alpha waves
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
Sleep
Periodic, natural loss of consciousness- as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (scn)
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm. In response to light, the scn causes the pineal gland to adjust melatonin production, thus modifying our feelings of sleepiness.
Hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
Delta waves
The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
NREM sleep
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
Insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
a sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks
Sleep apnea
people with this condition intermittently stop breathing during sleep
Night terrors
characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified NOT NIGHTMARES
Dreams
a sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person's mind
Manifest content
the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
Latent content
the underlying meaning of a dream
REM Rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation
Substance use disorder
continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk
Psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
Tolerance
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
Addiction
compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors
Withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing an addictive drug or behavior
Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
Alcohol use disorder
Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use
Barbiturates
drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
Opiates
depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
Stimulants
excite neural activity and speed up body functions
Amphetamines
stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
Nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
Cocaine
powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria
Methamphetamine
stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
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