Chapter 7 - Evolutionary Psychology

Evolutionary Biology

Evaluates how natural selection affects the expression of behavior and cognition to increase survival and reproductive success

Natural Selection

Evolutionary process through which adaptive traits are passed on to ongoing generations and maladaptive are suppressed

Adoption Studies

A research designs used to evaluate “Nature vs Nurture” by comparing the similarities of biological parent - children pairs with those of adoptive parent - child pairs

Twin Studies

A research design used to evaluate “Nature vs Nurture” by comparing the similarities of identical to fraternal twins - reared together or separate

Family Studies

A research design used to evaluate “Nature vs Nurture” by comparing the similarities of families due to similar genetic structures

Eugenics

A philosophy based on evolution that attempted to “improve” society by controlling breeding to decrease “undesirable” heritable traits such as low IQ

Sensory Neurons

Neurons that send incoming sensory info detected by receptors to the brain / spinal cord for processing

Interneurons

Neurons within the brain and spinal cord that enable communication between sensory / motor neurons

Motor Neurons

Neurons that activate muscles to enable motor movement

Glial Cells

Non - neuron cells in the nervous system designed to support the function of neurons

Dendrites

Receives info from other at receptor sites

Receptor Sites

Specific locations on the dendrites of a receiving neuron where neurotransmitters bind, acting like specialized "locks" that only fit certain neurotransmitter "keys", allowing for the transmission of signals between neurons at the synapse

Axon

Sends messages received by the dendrites to the terminal (DAT way)

Myelin Sheath

Faty insulation produced by glial cells around the axon that increases how fast a neuron communicates

Terminal

They are the structures responsible for sending signals to other neurons by releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

Resting Potential

When a neuron is not sending or receiving a message because the interior of the neuron is more negative - than the outside

Threshold

When a neuron has been stimulated enough to cause it to change from resting potential (neg) to action potential (pos)

Action Potential / Depolarization

The brief electrical charge that is produced when a neuron reaches the threshold and changes to positive

All - or - None Principle

Once a threshold is reached - the neuron fully fires (nesting to action potential) - with same magnitude of intensity every time

Refractory Period

Short time period after a neuron fires - when a neuron returns to resting potential and cannot fire until the process is finished

Synapse

Location of neural communication between two neurons

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released into the synapse during action potentials and bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of other neurons

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that produce more action potentials when active in the synnapse

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters that produce less action potentials when active in the synapse

Reuptake

Process of neurotransmitters in the synapse returning to the presynaptic neuron after stimulating the postsynaptic neuron

Multiple Sclerosis

A disease that leads the immune system to attack and destroy myelin sheath throughout the nervous system

Myasthenia Gravis

A disease that leads to a weakening of voluntary muscles by destroying acetylcholine receptor sites

Dopamine

Functions as pleasure / reward system satisfaction

High levels linked to schizophrenia

Application, cocaine “works” by blocking dopamine reuptake

Substance P

Functions as a perception (detection) of pain

Serotonin

Functions as a mood regulation

Low levels are linked to depression

Endorphins

Functions as pain relief

Applications, “runners high” - feeling of wellbeing after exercise

Norepinephrine

Functions as a regulation of alertness and the fight / flight response

Glutamate

Most common excitatory neurotransmitter - active for most normal cognitive functioning

Acetylcholine

Functions as a enabler for muscle movements and linked to memory

Applications, Alzheimer’s disease, myasthenia gravis

GABA

Functions as a common inhibitory neurotransmitter - reduces brain activity

Low levels are connected to insomnia and anxiety

Applications, GABA reuptake inhibitors treat epilepsy

Stimulant

Psychoactive drugs such as caffeine and cocaine that increase neural activity

Depressant

Psychoactive drugs such as alcohol that decrease neural activity

Hallucinogen

Psychoactive drugs such as marijuana that distort sensory processing (perception) and cognition

Opiate

Psychoactive drugs that reduce pain

Example is Heroine

Tolerance

Declining physiological effects of a drug after sustained use - requiring larger amounts for previous effects

Addiction

A state of physiological and / or physical dependence on a substance or behavior

Withdrawl

Physical discomfort / pain when a substance is stopped (terminated)

Medulla

Controls vital automatic functions such as breathing and heart rate

Located at the brainstem

Reticular Activating System (RAS)

Regulation of arousal, alertness, wakeness, sleep

Located at the brainstem

Damaged in a coma

Cerebellum

Coordination of muscle movement, balance, and procedural memory

Brain’s Reward Center

Groups of structures that are activated by regarding or reinforcing behaviors

Thalamus

Relays sensory signals (except smell) to the corresponding cortex

Hypothalamus

Manages “maintenance activities” by regulating hormone levels via the pituitary gland

Maintenance: Hunger , Thirst , Sex drive , Body temp

Hippocampus

Responsible for your memory and learning , helps you remember, both short- and long-term, and gain awareness from your environment

Amygdala

Responsible for fear responses and learning out of fearful situations, involved in regulation of memory consolidation or the process of turning a memory into long-term memory

Frontal lobe

Part of the brain responsible for higher cognitive functions including reasoning, problem-solving, judgment, and motor function

Broca’s Area

Necessary for the muscle movements related to speech production. Damage to this area (Broca’s aphasia) results in difficulty forming coherent speech, even though comprehension might remain largely intact.

Motor Cortex

Controlling and executing voluntary movements. Each part of the motor cortex corresponds to movements in specific body regions (ex. hands, feet, facial muscles).

Prefrontal Cortex

Essential for higher-level cognitive functions such as decision-making, self-control, and judgment. It’s one of the last areas of the brain to fully develop (around 25), which is why adolescents often show impulsive behavior compared to adults

Occipital Lobe

Responsible for visual processing. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in partial or complete loss of sight, depending on which area is affected

Parietal Lobe

Responsible for processing touch based sensory information such as touch, temperature, pain (due to the somatosensory cortex) and touch-related memory (due to association areas).

Somatosensory Cortex

Receives information from touch sensory receptors throughout the body. More area in the somatosensory cortex is devoted to regions requiring fine sensation (like fingertips)

Association Areas

Organize and give meaning - with long-term memories - to messages regarding your sense of touch processed in the somatosensory cortex

Temporal Lobe

Responsible for the processing of auditory information, language comprehension (due to Wernicke’s area) and facial recognition

Wernicke’s Area

Crucial for language comprehension. Damage here (Wernicke’s aphasia) leads to difficulties understanding language; individuals may physically speak fluently but use nonsensical words/sentence structure and struggle to grasp meaning in spoken language

Spinal Cord

Responsible for carrying sensory messages to the brain and motor messages from the brain. it is also responsible for the spinal reflex arc. Damage to the spinal cord can result in paralysis or loss of sensation, depending on the location and severity of the injury.

Spinal Reflex Arc

Involves an automatic response to a stimulus that occurs without direct input from the brain. When you touch something hot, a reflex loop in the spinal cord instructs your muscles to pull away before the signal even reaches your brain. This quick, protective mechanism helps prevent further injury

Peripheral Nervous System

Includes all the neurons outside the brain and spinal cord. The peripheral nervous system is further divided into the somatic (voluntary control of muscles) and autonomic (involuntary functions) systems.

Somatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that governs voluntary muscle movements. For example, picking up a cup of coffee or kicking a soccer ball - voluntary muscle movements - involves signals traveling through the somatic nervous system.

Automatic Nervous System

Part of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily functions like heartbeat, digestion, and gland activity. It operates mostly outside our conscious control, ensuring crucial functions (like breathing) continue even when we sleep

Sympathetic Nervous System

Prepares the body for “fight-or-flight” during stress or emergencies. Your sympathetic system rapidly mobilizes resources to help you respond.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Helps the body “rest and digest,” conserving energy and restoring calm. After a stressful event, the parasympathetic system helps bring the body back to a balanced state

Corpus Callosum

Collection of neurons that connect the left and right hemispheres of the brain. It allows the two hemispheres to communicate and share information. If the corpus callosum is severed, as in split-brain surgeries used to relieve epilepsy, coordination between the hemispheres is disrupted

Split - Brain Research

Studying individuals who have had their corpus callosum surgically severed (often to control severe epilepsy). These studies reveal how the brain’s hemispheres may function independently.

Contralateral Hemisphere Organization

Refers to how each hemisphere of the brain processes sensory and motor information for the opposite side of the body

Cortex Specialization

Refers to the idea that different areas of the brain’s cerebral cortex serve specialized functions, such as language, spatial reasoning, or sensory processing

Left Hemisphere vs Right Hemisphere

The left hemisphere of the brain is generally associated with logic, language, analytical thinking, and mathematical abilities, while the right hemisphere is primarily responsible for creativity, spatial awareness, intuition, and emotional processing

Brain Plasticity

Refers to the brain’s ability to reorganize and adapt by forming new neural connections throughout life (with experience such as taxi drivers and visual tasks) and after brain injuries (out of necessity)

Long - Term Potentiation

Refers to the process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation. Each time neurons fire together, they reinforce the pathway between them, making it easier for subsequent action potentials to travel across the same route.

Lesion

A technique in research settings which involves studying damage or abnormality in the brain. Lesions are often the focus of case studies because it would be unethical to intentionally damage the brain

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

Records the brain’s electrical activity using electrodes placed on the scalp. It is often used to diagnose conditions like epilepsy and sleep disorders. It is also the most common way to study sleep.

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

A brain imaging technique that measures changes in blood flow, indicating regions of higher neural activity. By comparing active vs. resting states, researchers can see which parts of the brain are involved in specific cognitive tasks

Endocrine System

A collection of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate bodily functions like growth, metabolism, and mood. It works alongside the hypothalamus within the nervous system but uses chemical signals via hormones rather than action potentials, often resulting in slower but longer-lasting effects

Pituitary Gland

“master gland” because it influences many other endocrine glands.  The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus and releases hormones that regulate growth, blood pressure, and reproductive functions

Growth Hormone

Produced by the pituitary gland to promote physical growth during childhood and adolescence. Deficiencies in growth hormone can lead to growth abnormalities

Adrenaline

Triggers the body’s fight-or-flight response. It increases heart rate, widens air passages, and sharpens focus. This hormone is crucial for managing acute stress, preparing the body for quick action in emergencies

Leptin

A hormone that helps signal satiety (fullness)

Ghrelin

Produced in the stomach and signals the brain to stimulate appetite

Melatonin

Secreted in response to darkness, to regulate sleep-wake cycles (the circadian rhythm). Elevated melatonin levels encourage drowsiness and help initiate sleep

Oxytocin

Involved in social bonding, trust, and maternal behaviors. It promotes connection between individuals, such as bonding between mother and child or feelings of trust in relationships

Tend - and - Befriend

Refers to a stress response linked to oxytocin more commonly associated with females, in contrast to the “fight-or-flight” model. It involves protecting offspring (“tending”) and seeking social support (“befriending”) during stressful situations