Honors Bio Final Study Guide

Independent Variable

The factor manipulated by the experimenter to observe its effect on the dependent variable

Dependent Variable

The factor measured or observed, which changes in response to the independent variable

Constant (Controlled Variable)

Any factor that is kept the same across experimental groups to ensure a fair test

Positive Control

A part of the experiment designed to produce a known, expected result, confirming the setup works properly

Negative Control

A part of the experiment that receives no treatment and establishes a baseline for comparison

Choosing Type of Graph

The process of selecting the most appropriate graph (bar, line, scatter) based on data type and relationships

Scaling Axes

Determining the appropriate range and intervals for graph axes to represent data accurately

Labeling Axes

Adding descriptive titles and units to graph axes so the data’s meaning is clear

Creating a Key

Adding symbols or color explanations on a graph when multiple data sets are presented

Carbohydrate Analysis

A lab procedure to detect and quantify sugars and starches in samples

Protein Quantification Lab

An experiment to measure protein concentration, often using colorimetric assays

Competition Lab

A study of how organisms compete for limited resources in a controlled setting

Evidence for Evolution Lab

Experiments that demonstrate evolutionary processes, such as allele frequency changes

Dye Electrophoresis Lab

A lab using charged dyes to demonstrate principles of electrophoresis

PTC Lab

A genetics lab testing taste sensitivity to the chemical phenylthiocarbamide

DNA Extraction

The process of isolating DNA from cells or tissues

PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

A technique to amplify specific DNA sequences through thermal cycling

Restriction Enzyme Digest

Cutting DNA at specific recognition sequences using restriction enzymes

Electrophoresis

Separating DNA, RNA, or proteins by size/charge through a gel matrix under an electric field

Radioactive Decay (Calculation)

Determining the remaining radioisotope using the half‐life formula

Erosion Rate (Calculation)

Computing the rate at which rock formations wear away over time

Data Interpretation

Analyzing graphs and tables to draw meaningful conclusions

Silent Mutation

A point mutation where a codon change does not alter the amino acid

Missense Mutation

A point mutation where a codon change substitutes one amino acid for another

Nonsense Mutation

A point mutation converting a codon into a stop codon, truncating the protein

Inframe Mutation

Insertion/deletion in multiples of three nucleotides, preserving the reading frame

Frameshift Mutation

Insertion/deletion not in multiples of three nucleotides, shifting the reading frame

Abiogenesis

The hypothesis that life originated from nonliving organic compounds on early Earth

Abiotic Synthesis

Formation of organic molecules from inorganic substances without living organisms

Adaptation

A heritable trait that increases an organism’s fitness in its environment

Ancestral Trait

A characteristic inherited from the common ancestor of a group

Anneal (DNA)

The binding of complementary single‐stranded DNA during PCR

Archaea

A domain of single‐celled prokaryotes often living in extreme environments

Artificial Selection

Humans selectively breeding organisms to enhance desired traits

Autotroph

An organism that produces its own energy (e.g., via photosynthesis or chemosynthesis)

Bacteria

A domain of unicellular prokaryotes with peptidoglycan cell walls

Base Substitution

A point mutation replacing one nucleotide base with another

Binomial Nomenclature

Two‐part scientific naming system (Genus species) introduced by Linnaeus

Cellulose

A polysaccharide forming plant cell walls

Chitin

A polysaccharide forming fungal cell walls and arthropod exoskeletons

Clade

A group consisting of an ancestor and all its descendants

Cladistics

A method for constructing cladograms based on shared derived characters

Cladogram

A branching diagram showing evolutionary relationships

Convergent Evolution

Independent evolution of similar traits in unrelated lineages

Cyanobacteria

Photosynthetic bacteria that produce oxygen and contributed to atmospheric O₂

Decomposer

An organism that breaks down dead organic matter

Denature (DNA)

Separation of double‐stranded DNA into single strands by heat or chemicals

Derived Trait

A novel characteristic found only within a particular clade

DNA Palindrome

A sequence of DNA that reads the same forward and backward on complementary strands

Domain

The highest taxonomic rank: Bacteria, Archaea, or Eukarya

Endosymbiosis

A symbiotic relationship where one organism lives inside another, as in mitochondria origin

Eukaryotic

Cells with a nucleus and membrane‐bound organelles

Fermentation

Anaerobic conversion of glucose to energy, producing byproducts like ethanol or lactic acid

Fossil

Preserved remains or traces of ancient organisms in sedimentary rock

Gel

A medium (agarose or polyacrylamide) used in electrophoresis to separate biomolecules

Heterotroph

An organism that obtains energy by consuming other organisms

Hydrophobic

Describes molecules that repel water

KPCOFGS

Hierarchical classification ranks: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

Mitochondrial DNA

Genetic material found in mitochondria, often used in evolutionary studies

Molecular Clock

A method using mutation rates to estimate evolutionary divergence times

Multicellular

Organisms composed of multiple, specialized cells

Natural Selection

Differential survival and reproduction of individuals due to advantageous traits

Node (Cladogram)

A point on a cladogram representing a common ancestor

Ozone Shield (Layer)

Stratospheric ozone that absorbs harmful UV radiation

Paleontology

The scientific study of ancient life through fossils

Parsimony

The principle that the simplest explanation (fewest evolutionary changes) is preferred when building phylogenies

Peptidoglycan

A polymer forming bacterial cell walls

Phylogenetic Tree

A diagram depicting hypotheses about evolutionary relationships

Phylogeny

The evolutionary history of a group of organisms

Phylum

A taxonomic rank below Kingdom and above Class

Pipette

A laboratory tool used to measure and transfer small volumes of liquid

Primer

A short DNA sequence that initiates DNA synthesis in PCR

Prokaryotic

Cells lacking a nucleus and membrane‐bound organelles

Radiocarbon Dating

A method to date organic materials by measuring carbon

Recognition Sequence

A specific DNA sequence recognized and cut by a restriction enzyme

Respiration

The process of breaking down glucose to produce ATP, either aerobically or anaerobically

Restriction Enzyme

An enzyme that cuts DNA at specific palindromic sequences

Ribosomal RNA

RNA component of the ribosome, used in molecular phylogenetics

Sediment

Particles that settle out of water, forming layers that can preserve fossils

Selection Pressure

Environmental factors that influence which traits are advantageous

Sister Species

Two species that are each other’s closest relatives in a phylogeny

Taq Polymerase

A heat‐stable DNA polymerase used in PCR

Taxon

A group of organisms given a formal taxonomic name

Taxonomy

The science of naming, defining, and classifying organisms

Truncation Mutation

A mutation that produces a shortened, nonfunctional protein, often a nonsense mutation

Unicellular

Organisms composed of a single cell

Primordial Soup Hypothesis

The idea that life began in a “soup” of organic molecules on early Earth’s oceans

Deep Sea Vents Hypothesis

The proposal that life originated at hydrothermal vents with mineral‐rich fluids

Meteorites Hypothesis

The theory that organic compounds or life’s building blocks arrived via meteorites

Photosynthesis

The process by which autotrophs convert CO₂ and H₂O into glucose and O₂ using sunlight

Aerobic Respiration

The oxygen‐dependent breakdown of glucose to produce ATP, CO₂, and H₂O

Lactic Acid Fermentation

Anaerobic conversion of glucose to lactic acid and ATP in muscles and some bacteria

Fermentation

A form of anaerobic respiration (no oxygen required) in which organisms convert sugar into energy and byproducts like alcohol or lactic acid.

Fossil Evidence

Physical remains or traces of ancient organisms used to study evolution

Biogeography Evidence

Distribution patterns of species that support evolutionary history

DNA/Biochemical Evidence

Similarities in DNA sequences and biochemical pathways among organisms

Developmental Evidence

Similarities in embryo development that reveal common ancestry

Anatomical Evidence

Comparative structural features (homologous, analogous, vestigial) supporting evolution

Homologous Structure

Traits in different species that share a common developmental origin

Analogous Structure

Traits that serve similar functions but evolved independently