AP psych learning test

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience, new and relatively enduring information or behaviors (for example, learning the tells of good bread so you can experience the satisfaction of eating good bread again)

A Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response (for example, a squirt of water or an electric shock)

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together (learning associations). These events may involve two stimuli (like in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (like in operant conditioning).

respondent behavior

behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus (; it corresponds with classical conditioning, NOT OpC)

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which we link 2 or more stimuli (in pavlov’s classical exp; tone (CS) and food (UCS) are stimuli that come to cause saliva)

an example of classical conditioning

we come to associate and anticipate a flash of lightning with the booming loud thunder that follows it, causing us to wince

Pavlov’s Experiment

This how is how it was conducted. A thing of food (UCS) caused the dog to salivate (UCR; no training needed), and with repeated pairings, the dog eventually salivated when it heard a specific tone (because it had been classically conditioned to associate the tone with incoming food)

applying concepts of classical conditioning

A person hears the buzzing of a mosquito just before getting stung (UCS). After getting stung, the person winces (UCR) from the pain. After several repetitions of this phenomenon, the person winces (CR) to the buzzing (CS) alone because they were conditioned to learn that a buzzing meant a mosquito could sting them (causing pain/wincing)

Why mostly CS b4 UCS?

this allows the organism to learn to associate the CS as a signal that the US is about to occur, which is essential for creating a conditioned response; essentially, the CS acts as a predictor for the upcoming US, enabling the organism to anticipate the US and respond accordingly (CR). 

OpC acquisition

associate a response with the consequence (like with a reinforcer or punisher)

CC Acquisition

associating events (when one links a NeutralStim [an unrelated tone] and a UCS [food], so that the NS begins triggering the conditioned response [then NS becomes CS])

Acquisition

The first learning/linking of an association

cc extinction

CR decreases when CS is repeatedly present alone; not reinforced (like faking opening a can to get dog off couch)

OpC extinction

responding (CR?) decreases when reinforcement stops

extinction

the diminishing of a CR (salivation) when an UCS (food) doesn’t come after a CS (food tone)

cc spontaneous recovery

The reappearance, after a rest period, of a weakened CR (salivation)

spontaneous recovery

when an (almost) extinguished CR returns without any additional pairings with the UCS ( not acquisition)

Reg + CC generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar (white fluffy beard) to the CS (white bunny)

OpC Generalization

Responses learned in one situation occurring in other, similar situations

CC discrimination

Learning to distinguish between a CS (tone) and other stimuli that do not signal a UCS (a different tone)

OpC discrimination

Learning that some responses, but not others will be reinforced

Discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a CS (which usually precedes the UCS) and other stimuli that have not been associated with the CS

Higher order conditioning

Occurs when the conditioned stimulus in one CC association is paired with an NS, creating a second (often weaker) CS without ever being directly paired with the og UCS

How cc can play a role in drug cravings?

if a person does heroin routinely in their basement, with repeated pairings, their body makes associations between going to the basement and preparing the body for the amount of heroin it will receive (so it knows how to prevent ODing). but even if that person does the same amount of heroin in someone else’s house, they could OD because their body couldn’t prepare itself.

Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations (like between taste and nausea) that have survival value and aid its survival

Biological constraints + easier (How they affect cc)

an animal’s capacity for condition is limited by __ __, so some associations are __ to learn

taste aversion

animals who readily learned taste aversions were unlikely to eat the same toxic food again, and we’re more likely to survive and leave descendants (natural selection)

early behaviorists thought…

all classical conditioning was equal; just pairing two things would equally and effectively condition and affect the body, and that all associations can be learned equally well (but they were wrong)

John Garcia’s experiments’ findings

conditioning occurred in rats, even if they got sick as late as several hours later (showed that UCS doesn’t need to immediately need to come after UCS; connections will still occur.), and the rats developed taste aversions (but not to sights or sounds).

Garcia challenging prevailing behavioral views

he found that not all associations of the same impact as others; rats biology prepares them to readily learn taste of versions to toxic foods because it enables them to adapt to their environment (evolutionary perspective of Survival).

John B Watson

consider the main behavior proponent (Behaviorism with his ideology), he said that everything in humans can be conditioned (“as humans we don’t really have free will or individualism”). he said that human emotions and behaviors, though biologically influenced, are mainly a bundle of conditioned responses

little albert experiment (demonstrated how specific fears might be conditioned)

Little albert learn to fear a white rat after repeatedly experiencing a loud noise as the rat was presented (UCS = loud noise, UCR = fear response to noise, CS = rat after pairing, CR = fear of rat). albert’s learned fears led many psychologist to wonder whether each of us might be a walking warehouse of emotions, and if extinction procedures or new conditioning helps us change our unwanted responses to emotion rousing stimuli (psych jones showed how conditioning can also reduce children’s fear).

Watson’s views from behav perspective

He believed cognitive processes aren’t measurable and cannot be objectively studied so they don’t matter

cog revolution (expectations play a big role in conditioning)

a significant shift in psychology during the 1950s that moved the focus away from solely studying “observable” behaviors (behaviorism) and towards understanding internal cog mental processes (like perception, memory, and problem-solving) leading to the development of cognitive psychology as a dominant field of study; essentially, it marked a paradigm shift in psychology to study how people think and process information, rather than just their actions. For example, 2nd bobo doll trial, even though the kids knew how to beat up the doll they didn’t because they anticipated getting a punishment.

Operating conditioning

when organisms associate their own actions with consequences. (operating on the environment to produce a consequence)

classical conditioning in comparison to OpC

forming associations between stimuli (a CS and UCS it signals); Involves respondent behavior

Respondent behavior

automatic responses to stimuli (such as salivating in response to meat powder, and later in response to a tone).

Operation behavior

Behavior that operates on the environment to produce rewarding, or punishing stim

Reinforcers

increase likelihood of an action

Punishers

Decrease likelihood of doing an action

law of effect

the idea that behaviors followed by reinforcing (or favorable) consequences become more likely (to happen?), and the behavior followed by (unfavorable or) punishing consequences become less likely

reinforcement in OpC

any event that strengthens the behavior that comes after it

basis of skinner’s work

he used the law of effect and reinforcement to develop tech that revealed principals of behavior control

operant chamber (skinner box)

inside this contraption, a rat is able to press a bar for a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking. This box creates a stage of on which animals act out skinner’s concept of reinforcement (any event that strengthens [increases the frequency of] a preceding response). explores the precise conditions that foster efficient and enduring learning

shaping

an OpC conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior. by making regards contingent on desired behaviors, researchers and ani trainers can gradually shape complex behaviors in animals

positive reinforcement

adding desirable stimulus

neg rein

removing aversive stimulus (punishment, so u need to establish punishment b4 neg rein)

pos puni

adding aversive stim (punishment)

neg puni

removing desirable stim (reward)

fixed ratio

reinforces after a specific number of responses/times

fixed interval

reinforces after a specific amount of time

variable ratio

reinforces after an random number of times/responses

variable interval

reinforces after a random amount of time

continuous reinforcement

learning that occurs rapidly, but also is lost (extinct) the fastest

partial reinforcement

reinforcement only part of the time/responses, it’s harder to lose this than continuous

primary reinforcer

an innately, non-trained reinforcing stimulus (such as the one that satisfies a biological need; hunger/thirst; so food or water)

secondary or conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer (money, good grades, trophies, attention)

immediate reinforcement

immediate feedback produces immediate learning. if u present food immediately after displaying a behavior, it will likely repeat that rewarded behavior

delayed reinforcement

delaying giving the reinforcer (kinda delays human learning). responding to delayed reinforcers is delayed gratification; allowing you to become socially competent and high achieving Because it reduces your likelihood of commuting impulsive crimes

discriminative stimulus (in OpC)

when an organism will only perform a certain behavior when that specific stimulus is present, not even when kinda similar stim is also there. we can test how much an animal can discriminate between similar stim, and therefore learn about its cognitive abilities and their limits

Cognitive map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment (After exploring a maze or new school, animals act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it).

latent learning

Learning that occurs, but is an apparent until there’s an incentive to demonstrate it (opposes behaviorism bc u don’t need a reward, rein, or stim).

rat maze implications

it implies that learning can occur without reinforcement or punishment. Learning can occur from experience.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior. modeling is obs learning in practice and execution; need imitative practice to learn best

bobo doll

when kids saw adults being violent towards doll, they did too (they modeled the adults) when given the chance. this showed how much people can learn behaviors through observation and imitation, particularly aggression, highlighting the crucial role of role models and the environment in shaping behavior, especially in children, and suggesting that exposure to violent behavior can lead to increased aggression in observers

mirror neurons

neurons that some believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. they make us human since the brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation and empathy. when one person sees, its neurons mirror what another does. monkey see, monkey do (at least for neurons). imitation is pervasive (catchphrases, fashion, morals, and fads)

prosocial behavior

pos, constructive, helpful behav. people’s modeling of pos behav can have pro social effects; People who exemplify pro social behavior can also prompt similar behavior in others (like Martin Luther King Jr. and Ghandi did)

Antisocial behavior

negative, destructive, and harmful behavior. Observational learning can increase antisocial behavior. the lessons we learn as kids aren’t easily replaced as adults, and they’re sometimes visited on future generations. There’s a Violence viewing effect, And kids can learn wrong behaviors, while watching media (sources of observational learning)

insight learning

solving problems through sudden insight; contrasts w/ strategy based solutions

vicarious conditioning

the process of learning a behavior by observing the consequences of someone else's actions (A student sees their friend get scolded and assigned detention for texting during class, this will reduce the likelihood of them engaging in similar behavior ).

habituation

The decrease responsiveness that follows repetition of a stimuli

fixed ratio

every so many (paying maid per room cleaned)

variable ratio

rein after a random number of times (slot machine or fishing)

fixed interval

every so often (tuesday discount prices)

variable interval

rein for a behav after a random amt of time (checking phone for a message)