Studied by 6 people
- Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and the emergence of Psychology as a science. - Learning approaches: i) the behaviourist approach, including classical conditioning and Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of reinforcement and Skinner’s research; ii) social learning theory including imitation, identification, modelling, vicarious reinforcement, the role of mediational processes and Bandura’s research. - The cognitive approach: the study of internal mental processes, the role of schema, the use of theoretical and computer models to explain and make inferences about mental processes. The emergence of cognitive neuroscience. - The biological approach: the influence of genes, biological structures and neurochemistry on behaviour. Genotype and phenotype, genetic basis of behaviour, evolution and behaviour. - The psychodynamic approach: the role of the unconscious, the structure of personality, that is Id, Ego and Superego, defence mechanisms including repression, denial and displacement, psychosexual stages. - Humanistic Psychology: free will, self-actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, focus on the self, congruence, the role of conditions of worth. The influence on counselling Psychology. - Comparison of approaches.
empirical scientific research / introspection / conscious / systematic approach / structuralism
Origins of Psychology - Wundt (AO1)
Studying the mind was philosophy, Wundt 'the father of psychology' started controlled ________________________.
Opened the first psychological lab in Leipzig, Germany (1870's) studying internal mental processes.
Used ___________________ (looking inwards/ self-examination), analysing your own _______________ experience to standard stimuli (such as a metronome), reporting present experience such as sensations, emotional reaction, mental images
________________________, same stimulus, surroundings and instructions. The participants were highly trained.
Breaking thoughts about an object down into separate elements was an attempt to uncover the structure of the mind. This approach was called ________________.
stimuli / behaviours / black box / models
Origins of Psychology - Wundt (AO3)
Wundt's work paved the way for later scientifically controlled research in psychology.
Wundt's work was criticised by later behaviourist learning theorists who thought internal mental processes could not be studied scientifically by introspection, they focused only on observable inputs (__________) and outputs (__________) seeing the mind as a "______________” not open to objective scientific investigation.
The study of internal mental processes was later continued cognitive psychologists who built ___________ of how systems such as memory worked, however they used experimentation, not introspection.
black box / stimulus generalisation
Learning Approaches - Behaviourist Approach (AO1)
Developed in an attempt to make psychology more scientific by using highly controlled experiments, criticised earlier attempts to study internal mental processes, sees the mind as a "__________________."
__________________: conditioned response happens with similar stimuli. E.g. Little Albert was classically conditioned to fear a white rat and became afraid of a dog, a fur coat and a Santa mask.
Operant + classical conditioning
association
Learning Approaches - Behaviourist Approach: Classical Conditioning (AO1)
Learning by ______________: learning happens when a neutral stimulus (NS) is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) so that eventually the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) producing the response caused by the UCS.
Pavlov (1897) - Demonstrated this in dogs who would associate the sound of a bell or metronome (NS then CS) with food (UCS), and drool (R) to the CS.
trial + error / positive / negative / punishment / extinction
Learning Approaches - Behaviourist Approach: Operant Conditioning (AO1)
Learning by _________________: learning from connection between behaviours and consequences.
Skinner (1938) – Demonstrated this in rats who learnt from trial and error that pulling on a leaver would release a food pellet. The leaver pulling behaviour became more frequent and deliberate over time. The rats also learnt to press the leaver to stop the floor of the cage being electrocuted for 30 seconds.
Types of reinforcement:
__________ (adding a stimulus to increase a behaviour)
__________ (removing a stimulus to increase a behaviour)
__________ (adding a stimulus to decrease a behaviour)
__________ (stopping reinforcement will result in the behaviour stopping over time)
Watson’s behaviourist manifesto / behaviour is response to environmental stimulus / focus on observable SR behaviours / systematic, objective studies
In 1913, what identified the 3 main aspects of behaviourism? What were they?
generalisation / discrimination / extinction / spontaneous recovery / higher order conditioning
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
when CS no longer paired with UCS, CR will eventually cease
In behaviorist classical conditioning, what is extinction?
only takes few UCS & CS pairings for CR to reappear after extinction
In behaviorist classical conditioning, what is spontaneous recovery?
second order conditioning / Pavlov
In behaviourist classical conditioning, what is higher order conditioning also known as? Who suggested this process?
token economies / environmentally deterministic / hard determinist / manipulating / reductionist
Learning Approaches - Behaviourist Approach (AO3)
Little Albert (Watson 1920) study showed fear could be a learnt response, suggesting not instinctual. Led to development of behavioural explanation and counter conditioning treatments for phobias.
Behavioural theories have been used in an attempt to control human behaviour (_________________) this can be seen as unethical.
___________________________ - behaviours result from leaning from the environment, not free will.
___________________ - no role for free will in behavioural theories.
Behaviourists use objective scientific experimental methods - systematically ________________ variables, focus on observable behaviour demonstrates cause and effect.
____________________ approach focusing on lower level of explanation, eg S-R links/associations therefore lacks meaning when it comes to complex human behaviours.
Research mainly with animals therefore generalisation to human behaviour could be limited.
CPU / software / schema / inferences / cognitive neuroscience
Cognitive Approach (AO1)
Behaviour is the result of conscious and unconscious information processing (thoughts).
Internal mental processes are a series of stages of mental information processing. Stages are represented by cognitive theories as theoretical models, these are flow charts like those used by computer programmers showing how information flows and is processed in a mental system, such as memory (WMM/MMS) or attention. These models produce theories testable by experiment.
The cognitive approach suggests the brain can be viewed as similar to a computer _______ and the mind as like the ____________ that runs on this. Computers also have inputs like the brain has senses and outputs like behaviour. This is termed the Computer model.
Role of ______________
__________________
Emergence of _____________________
schema / stereotypes, prejudice & bias
Cognitive Approach: _________ (AO1)
Cognitive mental frameworks/blueprints of how people/objects work.
Formed from prior experience, these organise the large amount of new information we experience every moment and make assumptions on how to behave and think, however incorrect schema lead to ______________________.
inference
Cognitive Approach: ________________ (AO1)
Going beyond observed behaviour to make assumptions about the underling structure of mental processes that resulted in that behaviour. Used as internal mental processes cannot be directly observed.
neurobiological
Cognitive Approach: Cognitive Neuroscience (AO1)
The development of new brain scanning techniques such as FMRI have allowed thought processes to be linked to patterns of activity in the brain, providing ___________________ support to pre-existing cognitive models such as the WMM
PET
process whereby cognitive psychologists draw conclusions about mental processes on basis of observed behaviour
What is the definition for inference?
machine reductionism / AI / soft determinist / inferences / braver
Cognitive Approach (AO3)
______________________ oversimplifies human behaviour by describing human thinking as processing like a computer. Computers do not have features of human experiences such as emotion, irrationality and consciousness.
Cognitive psychologist's ideas on information processing have been used to develop the field of ________, with applications in self-driving and automation. These will have significant consequences for the economy.
_____________________: thoughts are influenced by previous experience (schemas) and brain structure, however conscious thought can override as an expression of free will.
Using ______________ to assume underlying processes in thinking, is unscientific as internal mental processes cannot be directly tested and inferences by be mistaken or influenced by bias. However used of experimental method is scientific.
Mental processes described by models such as attention and memory are distinct. However there is little explanation as to how these mental events work together in a larger mental system.
Cognitive neuroscience techniques by _________ (1997) provides neuro-biological evidence of the CE in the WMM, located in prefrontal cortex. High activation detected with brain scans when completing CE tasks, increasing with task difficulty
genetics / biological structures / neurochemistry / evolution
Biological Approach (AO1)
Biological: behaviour is a result of physical processes within the body, primarily neurological brain activity but also hormonal factors. These processes are inherited generically and are a result of evolutionary pressure.
G___________
B_________ s______________
N________________
E___________
genotypes / phenotypes
Biological Approach: Genetics (AO1)
Influence of genes on behaviour is demonstrated from twin and family studies, showing the risk of disorders such as schizophrenia, OCD and depression increase significantly the more closely related people are to a sufferer, as they share more genes.
This is explained by ____________________ (GT), the genetic information inherited from parents, that code for distinct observable physical and behavioural characteristics, called __________________ (PT).
The expression of physical and behavioural properties (PT) are dependent on the inheritance of GT's. EG certain genes (GT) code for production of high testosterone leading to psychological characteristics (PT) such as high aggression levels being expressed.
amygdala / orbitofrontal cortex
Biological Approach: Biological Structures (AO1)
Neural areas in the brain are associated with behavioural functions, such as the _______________ (emotional responses), ___________________(future planning) and Broca's area (speech production) the development of these areas of the brain and the connections between them are coded for genetically.
imbalances / endocrine system
Biological Approach: Neurochemistry (AO1)
Neurotransmitters such as serotonin and dopamine can influence brain / synaptic functioning.
__________________ result in changes in behaviour such as aggression levels and psychopathology.
Hormones (adrenaline) released by the ________________________ in response to stressors results in the "fight or flight" behavioural response.
reproductive advantage / dominance, group cooperation & mate-guarding
Biological Approach: Evolution (AO1)
Evolution is the selection of GT's that code for PT's that provide a survival and/or __________________________.
Behaviours with these advantages will become more prevalent in a population, examples in human behaviour are ______________, ________________ & ________________.
plasticity / knowledge / nomothetic / objectivity / diathesis stress
The Biological Approach (AO3)
Complex interaction between environmental experiences and development of biological structures not fully explained by a purely biological approach shown by work on ________________.
Maguire (2000) used MRI brain scans on taxi drivers who had completed a memory test called the _________________, areas of their hippocampus were significantly larger than controls.
The effectiveness of the drug treatments developed by biological psychologists, as well as biological theories have been demonstrated by highly controlled __________________ research studies using techniques that provide _______________ such as blood tests and FMRI.
Explanations for disorders such as schizophrenia that cannot be fully explained for by genetic inheritance, often take a ______________________ explanation, disorders being the result of the interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability (ie genetic genotype) and environmental stressors (ie personal loss, abuse, drug use).
Biological determinism
Biological reductionism
biological reductionism / parsimony
The Biological Approach: ______________________ (AO3)
Biological psychologists reduce the explanation for complex behaviours and human experience to simple biological elements (neurotransmitters).
While this ignores other valid explanations, this is based on the scientific principle of ___________________, that complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest way possible. And has led to the development of effective drug treatments.
determinism / free will
The Biological Approach: Biological ___________________ (AO3)
Suggests that human behaviour and thought processes are the result of biological processes outside of our conscious control.
This goes against the view that our decisions are driven by _______________.
psychoanalytic therapy / structure of personality / defence mechanisms
The Psychodynamic Approach (AO1)
The psychodynamic approach: focused on studying how unconscious psychological processes shape behaviour, these processes are thought to form during early childhood experience. Founded by Sigmund Freud who also based ________________________ on these ideas.
Aspects of the mind.
_________________________: formed of the ID (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own needs/desires.
_____________________ are unconscious processes that reduce anxiety felt by the Ego by distorting reality.
Psychosexual stages are phases of development that children pass through. Fixation can occur at any stage, resulting adult psychological disorders. Stages are named after where the child derives pleasure.
conscious / preconscious
The Psychodynamic Approach - Aspects of the Mind (AO1)
Unconscious: not open to awareness, containing socially unacceptable thoughts, painful emotions, drives/instincts and memories that are repressed. Includes:
___________________ (awareness)
______________________ (thoughts/memories that can be recalled, but not currently in conscious awareness).
2 years / rational thought / 3-5 years / guilt
The Psychodynamic Approach - Structure of Personality (AO1)
Formed of the id (pleasure principle) present from birth, focused on satisfying its own needs/desires.
Ego (reality principle) develops from _______________, focused on balancing other two aspects with __________________.
Superego (morality principle) develops from ______________, focused obeying learnt rules of society and uses ___________.
pleasure / reality / morality
What are the ways of describing the principles of the id, ego and superego?
repression / denial / displacement
The Psychodynamic Approach - Defence Mechanisms (AO1)
Unconscious processes that reduce anxiety felt by the ego by distorting reality. Include…
_______________ - making a memory inaccessible to consciousness.
__________ - to accept the reality of a situation.
___________________ - moving emotions from the source to an alternative.
erogenous zone / ego / castration anxiety / repression
The Psychodynamic Approach - Psychosexual Stages of Development (AO1)
Phases of development that children pass through. Fixation can occur at any stage, resulting in adult psychological disorders. Stages are named after the __________________ where the child derives pleasure and are:
Oral (0-18 months)
Focal point of sensation.
Anal (18 months - 3 years)
________ begins forming - realisation of need to conform.
Toilet training.
Phallic (3 - 6 years)
Oedipus complex.
______________ leads to identification with father.
Latent (6-puberty)
_______________ of conflicts and issues of previous stages leads to consequence of forgetting early years.
Genital (puberty-adulthood).
Provides direction towards sexual intercourse.
oral / 0-18 months
What is the first stage of psychosexual development? When does this occur?
anal / 18 months - 3 years
What is the second stage of psychosexual development? When does this occur?
anal retentivity - extreme need to control environment / anal expulsivity - disorganised, prone to emotional outbursts
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what was suggested can happen if toilet training is handled badly? What is the definition of these?
phallic / 3 - 6 years
What is the third stage of psychosexual development? When does this occur?
gender-role identity / children generally engage in activities with same-sex peers
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what is consolidated in the stage of latency? How is this seen?
latency / 6 years - puberty
What is the fourth stage of psychosexual development? When does this occur?
genital / puberty - adulthood
What is the fifth stage of psychosexual development? When does this occur?
incestuous urges / redirected to more socially acceptable partner
In Freud’s psychosexual stages of development, what resurfaces in the genital stage? How are these acted upon?
neuroses (negative emotional states)
What did Freud assume that stemmed from suppression of unconscious sexual and aggressive urges?
Bowlby’s attachment theory / psychic determinism / scientific experimentation / unfalsifiable
The Psychodynamic Approach (AO3)
Freud's ideas strongly influenced the development of _____________________ which suggests periods of maternal deprivation in childhood can have long lasting negative psychological effects on adults. This is widely accepted and has revolutionised child welfare.
__________________: mental processes and behaviour that appear freely chosen under conscious control are actually caused by powerful unconscious systems set in childhood. This goes against how most people view their decision making.
Freud's theories developed from his own interpretation of case studies, such as little Hans's fear of horses which Freud explained as resulting from a fear of his father (Oedupus complex) this methodology is highly susceptible to bias.
Concepts such as the unconscious mind being inaccessible mean it cannot be tested in ____________________, so can't be shown to exist or not exist (_________________) Popper argues psychodynamic ideas are not scientific.
66 / neurotic disorders / 70 / without any treatment
The Psychodynamic Approach: Eysenck (1952) (AO3)
While the psychodynamic concepts are not open to scientific study, the effectiveness of psychotherapy seems limited.
Metanalysis demonstrated ______% of people with __________________ treated recovered, however ______% recovered ________________, casting doubt on the theory behind psychotherapy.
Eysenck / 66% with neurological disorders treated recovered, 70% recovered without any treatment
Who researched effectiveness of psychotherapy? What did they find?
free will / self / conditions of worth / client-centred therapy / unconditional positive regard
The Humanistic Approach (AO1)
Developed in the 1960's in response to other psychological approaches that focused on the negative/pathological aspects of human behaviour, instead humanism focuses on personal growth.
F_______ w_______
Focus on the _________
______________________ - the requirements an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved. (real or imaginary), can prevent self actualisation.
Humanistic counselling: Rogers’ __________________ attempts to help the client achieve congruence and provides __________________________ (opposite of conditions of worth). The client is the "expert" responsible for solving their own problems.
determined / cause-effect
The Humanistic Approach: Free Will (AO1)
Humanistic psychologists suggest that while there are laws and constraints on our behaviour, our actions are not ________________ by _________________ relationships (biological or environmental).
We ultimately consciously choose our behaviours freely.
self-concept / ideal / congruence / incongruence
The Humanistic Approach: Focus on the Self (AO1)
Rogers suggests each person has a _______________ (how you see yourself) and an __________ self (how you would wish to be).
__________________ is how close the self-concept and ideal self are. If there is a big difference (______________), then self-actualisation can't be achieved.
physiological / safety / love & belonging / esteem / self-actualisation / motivation
The Humanistic Approach: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs and Self-Actualisation (AO1)
Maslow's hierarchy of needs suggests before satisfying the need for self-actualisation the individual must meet more basic needs, then progressing on to higher needs. In order:
___________
___________
___________________
_________________
___________________: the point at which the individual has achieved their full potential.
Humanists think everyone has the capability and ________________ to work towards the goal of self-actualisation.
operationalised / objectively / ideographic / valid / reliable / individualistic Western / deterministic
Humanistic Psychology (AO3)
Concepts such as "self-actualisation" are not clearly __________________ so are not measurable, or open to scientific study, however humanists reject the scientific method in the study of human behaviour suggesting it's not possible for humans to study humans ______________.
Takes a holistic view of studying humans, considering all factors when attempting to understand individuals, using ________________ methods such as case studies. (arguably a more ________ approach but less _________).
Could be an example of cultural bias, _______________________ cultures prioritise individual success and achievement. In collectivist cultures group success is more important. Humanistic psychologists may view individuals from collectivist cultures as less able to self-actualise, therefore in some way inferior.
The humanistic theory is positive, suggesting strategies for significant personal development and positive change at any stage of life. A distinction from more ____________________ approaches seeing behaviour as set in childhood or biology.
imitation / modelling / identification / mediational processes / Bandura
Learning Approaches - Social Learning Theory (AO1)
Agrees with behaviourist ideas that behaviour results from learnt experience, disagrees with behaviourist approach of ignoring internal mental processes, suggesting they must be present for learning. Focuses on learning taking place in a social context due to exposure to others behaviour.
I_________
M______________
I_______________
M___________ p__________
_______________ (1961)
vicarious reinforcement / vicarious punishment / between stimulus & response / attention / retention / motivation / reproduction
Learning Approaches - Social Learning Theory (AO1)
Imitation: others behaviour is observed, if behaviour is rewarded we are more likely to reproduce the behaviour (_______________________). Less likely to replicate if observes negative consequences (__________________________).
Modelling: Others act as blueprints for our behaviour. Can be real people or symbolic models (from TV/movies).
Identification: models with characteristics we relate to (e.g. age, gender, and ethnicity) are more likely to be imitated.
Mediational processes: cognitive processes ________________________ that influence likelihood of behaviour imitation.
___________ (see)
_______________ (remember)
_______________ (want/rewards)
_______________ (can/skill).
72 3-5 year old / matched / gender / imitation & identification / prosocial & antisocial
Learning Approaches - Social Learning Theory: Bandura (1961) (AO1)
________________ children __________ on levels of aggression. Groups watched videos of adults interacting aggressively or non-aggressively/neutrally with a bobo doll.
Findings: Aggression was imitated in group who watched adult's model aggression. Other group were not aggressive. Effect stronger if adult was the same ___________ as the child.
Suggestions: ________________; learning can have ____________________ effects.
live / verbal / symbolic
What are the 3 type of model that Bandura identified?
attention / retention / reproduction / motivation
What were the specific steps that Bandura proposed in the process of modelling that must be followed if learning is to be successful?
personal factor, behaviour & environment interaction
According to Bandura, what is reciprocal determinism?
control variables / cause-effect / observable
Learning Approaches - Social Learning Theory (AO3)
Bandura’s research used __________________ and demonstrated behaviour was imitated.
A ___________________ relationship due to imitation in real life examples of aggression is difficult to study.
SLT's inclusion of internal mental processes is improvement on behaviourism in explaining human behaviour, due to personal experience of having internal mental processes, has face validity. (however study IMP with inferences)
Cognitions used in SLT are not ______________________ directly, making SLT less scientific than behaviourists who only studied objectively measurable stimulus response mechanisms.
SLT processes can explain the development of basic learnt behaviours (aggression), but not more abstract concepts like justice.
SLT sees behaviour as environmentally determined (nurture) but some behaviours may be innate (nature) and better explained by biological explanations or a combination of both factors.
same-sex modelling significantly increased number of female observers who agreed to donate blood / SLT
What did Rushton + Campbell find? Which approach did this align with?
Seigel + McCormick
Who suggested that young people who hold deviant values and attitudes are likely to associate with similarly-inclined peers, because they are more fun to be with, and thus the reinforcement of ‘deviant’ behaviour is a two-way process, not necessarily the result of SLT itself?
causal / soft determinism / consciousness / psychically deterministic / decision making
Comparison of Approaches - Free Will & Determinism
Behaviourists: behaviour is environmentally determined, stimulus-response (___________ relationship)
SLT: ___________________ learning and mediational processes determine behaviour, however role for choice.
Cognitive: soft determinism, thoughts are affected by previous experience (schemas), but __________________ can override.
Biological: behaviour is biologically determined due to the interaction of neurotransmitters, genes and brain structure.
Psychodynamic: __________________, behaviour is caused by unconscious mental processes (i.e. defence mechanisms, ID)
Humanist: humans express free will in their conscious __________________.
pre-existing neurotransmitters / complex interactions
Comparison of Approaches - Nature/ Nurture
Behaviourists: Nurture, no role for instincts/bio as born as "blank slates" shaped by environment
SLT: Nurture, however also shaped by observation of others experiences.
Cognitive: Both, interaction of brain structure and learnt experiences influencing internal mental systems.
Biological: Nature, behaviour a result of interaction of _________________________, gene and brain structure effects.
Psychodynamic: Both, innate drives and the role of childhood experiences in shaping behaviour.
Humanist: Experiences (nurture) most important, but ___________________ with biological aspects.
experimental methods / general mental models / generalise / subjective
Comparison of Approaches - Ideographic/ Nomothetic
Behaviourists: Nomothetic, large (animal) experiments providing general laws for human behaviour.
SLT: Nomothetic, use of __________________ in determining general laws (Bandura).
Cognitive: Mainly nomothetic with the use of _____________________. However some case studies
Biological: Nomothetic, large biological studies used to give general (medical/physiological) based laws.
Psychodynamic: Ideographic use of case study, however attempt to ______________ findings (nomothetic).
Humanist: Ideographic - no attempt to make general laws; instead studies are ______________ to individual experience.
environmentally / machine reductionism / holistic
Comparison of Approaches - Reductionism & Holism
Behaviourists: __________________ reductionist; ignores mental processes and socio-cultural explanations
SLT: less environmentally reductionist as includes mental factors, however still ignores factors that influence behaviour (i.e. biological)
Cognitive: ______________________; the mind is viewed as just a series of processes, similar to software.
Biological: biologically reductionist, ignores learnt behaviours/ sociocultural.
Psychodynamic: reductionist as behaviour due to drives, however includes aspects of thought process and learning.
Humanist: fully __________, only way to understand human behaviour is to consider all aspects/ levels of humanity
vicariously / schema / evolutionary pressure / adult emotional disorders / hierarchy of needs
Comparison of Approaches - Childhood Development
Behaviourists: Development based on environmentally conditioned behaviours learnt via association, reinforcement and punishment.
SLT: Behaviours can be learnt socially during development (_____________).
Cognitive: Development by acquiring ________ about how to interpret the world.
Biological: Development strongly influenced by genetic factors, inherited due to __________________.
Psychodynamic: Childhood experience/psychosexual stages fundamental in development of __________________.
Humanist: Healthy development requires unconditional positive regard and satisfying _______________.
unscientific / mediational processes / predictable systems / complex neuronal interactions / free will
Comparison of Approaches - Internal Mental Processes
Behaviourists: Ignores the role of conscious, thought of as ______________.
SLT: Internal mental process (__________________) are important in the generation of behaviour in humans.
Cognitive: Thoughts follow ___________________ that can be displayed as models (i.e. WMM)
Biological: Thoughts are due to ____________________; can be understood using cognitive neuroscience.
Psychodynamic: Large role for unconscious mental processes dominated by the Id/Superego & defence mechanisms
Humanist: Conscious mind is in control of actions and has __________.
reward mechanisms / token economies / maladaptive thought process / unconditional positive regard
Comparison of Approaches - Disorders & Treatments
Behaviourists: Use techniques such as flooding for phobias learnt via conditioning; part of the development of CBT.
SLT: Use ___________________ such as ___________________ in institutions alongside vicarious reinforcement.
Cognitive: Disorders are due to _________________ (Ellis ABC); CBT used to correct.
Biological: Due to imbalances of neurotransmitters, genes or brain structure; treatment with drug interventions.
Psychodynamic: Due to childhood development; psychotherapy as treatment, depends on process of introspection.
Humanist: Focus is on the healthy human, not pathology; _____________________ in client centred therapy
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Flashcard (25)