endocrine system, a&p II

What glands are these?

• Nonhormonal substances (sweat, saliva)

• Have ducts to carry secretion to membrane surface

• Examples: eccrine (watery)/ apocrine (scent glands)

exocrine

What glands are these?

• Produce hormones

• Lack ducts

• Examples: pituitary gland/thyroid, Pancreas (the pancrease is both exocrine and endocrine)

endocrine

Hormones: Are the following steriods or nonsteriods

• lipid (lipid soluble)

• Testosterone 

• Estrogen

• Aldosterone

• Cortisol

steriod

Hormones: Are the following steriods or nonsteriods

• amino acids/ peptides(water-soluble)

• insulin

• Glucagon

• ADH

nonsteriod

Direct gene activation mechanism of lipid soluble hormones

Translation- protein synthesis happens at the ribosome

1. steriod hormone diffueses through the plasma membrane and binds an intracellular receptor

2. receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus

3. receptor-hormone complex binds a specific DNA region

4. binding initiates transcitpion of the gene to mRNA

5. the mRNA directs protein sythesis

ADH (antidiruretic hormone):

controls how much water is absorbed in kidneys

• Makes you pee less

• Controls water channels in parts of kidney

What is this?

• Process that returns conditions to a set value (homeostasis) and turns off the response once values return to normal

• Examples from the endocrine system: Blood sugar, insulin makes blood sugar go back to normal. When blood sugar gets too low, glucagon brings it up

negative feedback mechanism

What is the process that just keeps going?

positive feedback

What is this?

• Process by which changes causes increasing similar changes (unusual)

Positve feeback mechanism

The endocrine system example of a positive feedback:

Oxytocin and uterine contractions; uterine contractions increase in frequency and intensity and oxytocin levels increase until parturition or child birth

ACTH

Adrenocorticotropin hormone 

• Secreted by pituitary gland

FSH

Follicle-stimulating hormone

• In both women and men

LH

Luteinizing hormone

• In both women and men

PTH

parathyroid hormone

PRL

Prolactin

TSH

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

• Stimulates thyroid

ADH

Antidiuretic hormone (Vasopressin)

OT

Oxytocin

• Pregnancy hormone

T₄

Thyroxine

T₃

Triiodothyronine 

Pituitary gland, in the Anterior lobe

growth hormone

promotes growth of long bones and increases cell uptake of amino acids mainly

Disorders associated with pituitary gland

• Pituitary dwarfism

• Pituitary giantism

• Acromegaly

Too much growth hormone in a child?

giantism

too little growth hormone as a child

dwarfism

too much growth hormone as an adult

acromegaly

Pituitary gland 

• Anterior lobe

  • Prolactin:

 sustains milk production after birth

Pituitary gland, in the Anterior lobe

• TSH=thyroid stimulating hormone:

Stimulates thyroid gland

Pituitary gland, in the Anterior lobe

• ACTH (Adrenocorticotropin hormone)

Stimulates the adrenal cortex

Pituitary gland, in the Anterior lobe

• FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

Stimulates the follicles in the ovary

Stimulates production of the sperm cells in testes

Pituitary gland, in the Anterior lobe

• LH (lutenizing hormone)

• Triggers ovulation in females

• Triggers testosterone production in males

Is the hormone ACTH in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

anterior lobe

Is the hormone FSH in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

anterior lobe

Is the hormone LH in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe

anterior lobe

Is the hormone PRL in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

anterior lobe

Is the hormone TSH in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

anterior lobe

Is the hormone ADH in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

posterior lobe

Is the hormone OT in the anterior lobe or posterior lobe:

posterior lobe

Pituitary gland, in the Posterior lobe

• Oxytocin

• Causes uterine contractions leading to birth

• Positive feedback mechanism

Pituitary gland: in the Posterior lobe

• ADH= Antidiuretic hormone

Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys, can cause blood pressure to rise

Diabetes insipidus= pituitary diabetes, is caused by 

• ADH deficiency

• Increases urination= polyuria

Thyroid gland:

• Triiodothyronine= T3

regulates metabolism

Thyroid gland:

• thyroxine= T4

regulates metabolism

Thyroid gland:

• calcitonin

• Released with hypercalcemia (high blood calcium)

• Stimulates/triggers osteoblasts (bone building cells), Builds Ca++ on to bone 

• regulates calcium

what is needed to absorb calcium?

vitamin D

What causes blood calcium to go up

calcium supplement, dairy consumption

what are goiters?

enlarged thyroid gland

What are endemic(found in an area/population)  goiters caused by?

an iondine deficiency

Goiter due to a disease state in the person or chemical exposure such as sick building syndrome.

toxic goiter

What is it called when the thyroid is too slow?

cretinism

These symptoms are of what disease:

• Low T3 and T4 at birth

• Detected with heal stick shortly after birth

• Given hormones to supplement this 

cretinism

What are these symptoms of?

• Overactive thyroid 

• Too much T3 and T4

• Symptoms: being too hot, difficulty maintaining weight/typically slender, bulging eyes

hyperthyroidism

What are these symptoms of?

• Thyroid not as active as needed, slow thyroid

• Symptoms: being cold, weight gain very easily, tired, slow metabolism, very dry skin and hair, brittle nails

• kids with this can be shorter than normal

hypothyroidism

What hormone is this?

• Released with hypocalcemia (low blood calcium, caused by low calcium intake)

• Triggered osteoclasts, bone breaks down into Ca+, and PO4(Phosphate ion), and Ca+

• Stimulates kidney tubules to reabsorb CA+ and secrete PO4 (secreted in urine)

• Activates vitamin D (needed for calcium absorption)

parathyroid hormone, PTH

• Too much parathyroid hormone

• Too much osteoclast activity, weakens bone

• Too much blood calcium

Is this hyperparathyroidism or hypoparathyroidism?

hyperparathyroidism

• Not enough parathyroid hormone

• Not enough osteoclast activity

• Low calcium

hyperparathyroidism or hypoparathyroidism?

hypoparathyroidism

Adrenal cortex (outer layer), what does hormones does it secrete?

• Aldosterone

• Cortisol 

• Androgens

What is aldosterone?

• Regulates sodium and potassium by stimulating the reabsorption of Na+ and the secretion of K+ in the kidney tubules 

• Secreted by the adrenal cortex

When is aldosterone released?

When K+ levels are elevated and Na+ levels in the blood are low, sodium levels should be higher 

What is cortisol

• Released with high stress

• Reduces inflammation and immune system (suppresses immune system)

• Stimulates gluconeogenesis (as a drug reduces inflammation)

• secreted by the adrenal cortex

What are androgens?

• Male sex hormones, supplements the gonads, can be converted to estrogen

  • secreted by the adrenal cortex

Adrenal gland disorders:

• Cushing syndrome

• Addison's disease

What are these symptoms of?

• Overactive adrenal glands(cortex mainly), too much aldosterone

• Extreme weight gain/rapid weight gain

• Sodium retention

• Swelling 

cushings syndrome

What are these symptoms of?

• Underactive adrenal glands(cortex mainly)

• Sleek body

• Can look tanned or dark pigmentation in lips and fingers 

addisons disease

What does the adrenal medula (inner) secrete?

• Epinephrine= adrenaline

• Norepinephrine= noradrenalin

• Enhances fight or flight response of sympathetic nervous system

What enhances fight or flight response (sympathetic nervous system):

Epinephrine and norepinephrine 

sympathetic branch

fight or flight

parasympathetic branch:

rest and digest, acetylcholine

Pancreas (it can be endocrine and exocrine)

• Islets of langerhans (alpha, beta and delta cells)

• The endocrine part of the pancreas

• Alpha cells secrete glucagon

• Beta cells secrete insulin 

• Insulin and glucagon are hormones that regulate blood sugar 

What do alpha cells do? (located in islets of langerhans)

Secrete glucagon with hypoglycemia,  Triggers glycogen to break down to glucose, Triggers conversion of noncarbs to glucose (glucogenesis)

What do beta cells do? (located in islets of langerhans)

Secrete insulin with hyperglycemia, triggers cells to take up glucose, liver makes glycogen, lowers blood sugar

What do acinar cells(in pacrease) do?

• Release digest enzymes through a duct that runs into small intestine, outside of islets of langerhans 

• exocrine part of the pancreas

The hormone that triggers release of glucose from glycogen when blood sugar is low, and what does this trigger?

• Glucagon, and it triggers glucogenosis 

Glycogenosis makes what?

glucose

Diabetes mellitus:

• Type 1 

• Type 2

• Gestational diabetes

What type of diabetes is this?

• Autoimmune disease where body attacks beta cells in the pancreas, so insulin is not produced 

• Juvenile diabetes

• Rare (5-10%)

• Dependent on insulin

type 1 diabetes

What type of diabetes is this?

• Insulin resistance, where cells ignore insulin, especially in adipose tissue

• Adult onset 

• More common (90-95%)

• Initially not dependent on insulin

type 2 diabetes

What disease do these problems from?

• Damage to blood vessels and nerves is common

• Diabetic retinopathy leading to blindness

• Kidney damage leading to kidney dialysis

• Increased risk of heart disease 

• Loss of nerve sensation and poor circulation

• Poor healing of wounds, slow wound healing

• Increased risk of gas gangrene in a limb, which normally results in an amputation

• ¼ of all these people have an amputation

uncontrolled diabetes

Diabetes that develops when pregnant

Your body cant make extra insulin it needs during pregnancy 

gestational diabetes

Pineal gland secretes what?

melationin: Involved in circadian rhythms, daily rhythm 24 hr cycle

Thymus gland

• Thymosin

• Stimulates T cell or T lymphocyte maturation

• Large in young mammals, degenerates after puberty

What is this hormone?

• Responsible for secondary sex characteristics at puberty in females

  • Breast development 

  • Wider hips/thighs

  • Axillary and groin hair 

Estrogen, which is located in the ovaries

What hormone is this?

• Comes from the corpus luteum, the remaining follicle cells that remain in the ovary after ovulation

• Helps maintain pregnancy

progesterone, located in the ovaries

What is the corpus luteum?

This is where progesterone comes

what hormone is this?

Responsible for secondary sex characteristics at puberty in males

• Broader shoulders

• Increase in muscle tissue

• Deepening voice

• Facial, axillary, and groin hair 

testorsterone, located in the testes

What kind of stress is this?

• Not enough sleep 

• Too much caffeine

• Too much alcohol 

• Pain

• smoking

physical stress

What kind of stress is this?

• Death of a loved one 

• Divorce 

• Losing a job

• Exams

• Getting in an argument

• Pandemics 

Psychological stress

What happens to the body when stressed?

• Increased heart rate which can increase blood pressure 

• Increased blood sugar which can increase risk for type 2 diabetes

• Decreased immune function

  • Decrease in T cells

  • Decrease in interferon

• Sympathetic nervous system is active, so increased problems with the digestive system

• Short term memory normally decreases to some degree

What hormones increase when stressed?

• Insulin (because blood sugar is increased)

• Epinephrine and norepinephrine (= adrenaline and noradrenaline) that come from the adrenal glands complementing the sympathetic nervous system

• Cortisol (=cortinone) that suppresses the immune system and increases body fat deposition in abdominal area, this contributes to central obesity or apple body sha

what is supressed with stress?

the immune system

What are ways to alleviate stress?

• Slow breathing

• Getting 6-8 hrs of sleep most nights

• Eat healthy meaks throughout the day, starting w breakfast

• Limit caffeine and alcohol 

• Exercise

• Time management

• Have a hobby

• Enjoy nature

• Have a good, positive social network

• Aroma therapy, lavender is naturally relaxing 

A hormone that plays an important role in childbirth is?

oxytocin

All of the following increase with stress except:

• Epinephrine 

• Insulin

• Cortisol

• T lymphocytes

t lymphocytes

Parathyroid hormone would be released when there is an?

• An increase in calcium in the blood

• A decrease in potassium in the blood

• A decrease in glucose in the blood

• An increase in potassium in the blood

• A decrease in calcium in the blood

decrease in calcium in the blood

When a steroid hormone combines with its target cell it:

• Directly turns specific genes on in the nuclear DNA because it diffuses through the membrane

Which of the following has both endocrine and exocrine functions?

• Adrenal glands

• Pituitary glands

• Pancreas

• Thyroid gland

pancreas