Chapter 5: Writing Strategies and Ethical Considerations

Organization

The first prerequisite for clear writing is _____ - the order in which one’s ideas are expressed.

American Psychological Association (APA).

The general organization of research reports in behavioral science is dictated by guidelines established by the _____. Among other things, these guidelines stipulate the order in which sections of a paper must appear.

Clarity

• Perhaps the fundamental requirement of scientific writing.

• Unlike some forms of fiction in which vagueness enhance the reader’s experience, the goal of scientific writing is to communicate information.

Sentence construction and word choice

It is essential, then, that the information is conveyed in a clear, articulate, and unclouded manner. Two primary factors contribute to the clarity of one’s writing: _____ and ____

Passive voice

First, state your ideas most explicitly and straightforwardly possible. One way to do this is to avoid the _____

Economical

Second, avoid overly complicated sentences. Be _____ in the phrases you use.

"Say what you mean and mean what you say"

is the scientific writer's dictum.

Conciseness

• A third important consideration in scientific writing

• Say what you are going to say as economically as possible.

• is also important for practical reasons.

Proofreading and Rewriting

Good writers are rewriters. Writers whose first draft is ready for public distribution are extremely rare if they exist at all. Most researchers revise their papers many times.

Gender-neutral language

In the 1970s, the American Psychological Association (APA) was one of several organizations and publishers to adopt guidelines for the use of _____

Generic pronouns

Historically, writers have used _____ such as he, him, and his to refer to both men and women, as in the sentence, "Every citizen should exercise his right to vote."

The Word Man

Similar problems arise when ____ and its variations (e.g., mankind, the average man, manpower, businessman, policeman, mailman) are used to refer to both men and women.

Nonequivalent Forms

Other instances of sexist language involve using words that are not equivalent for women and men.

Avoid Labels

Writers should avoid labeling people when possible and particularly when the label implies that the person is characterized in terms of a single defining attribute.

Three purposes

The guidelines in the APA Publication Manual serve _____.

• Help authors write more effectively

• Design to make published research articles uniform

• Design to facilitate the conversion of manuscripts typed using word

Title, Abstract, Introduction, Method, Results, Discussion, References

The APA Publication Manual specifies the parts that every research report. Generally speaking, a research paper should have a minimum of seven major sections:

Title Page

• The ____ should state the central topic of the paper clearly yet concisely. As much as possible, it should mention the major variables under investigation.

• ____ should generally be no more than 15 words. The ___ is centered in the upper half of the first page of the manuscript.

Abstract

The second page of a manuscript consists of the ____, a summary of the content of the paper. The ____ should be 150–250 words depending on the policy of a particular journal.

Introduction

describes for the reader the problem under investigation and presents a background context in which the problem can be understood.

Method

• This section describes precisely how the study was conducted.

• A well-written ____ allows readers to judge the adequacy of the procedures that were used and provides a context for them to interpret the findings.

Results

• This section reports the statistical analyses of the data collected in the study.

• Generally, writers begin by reporting the most important ____ and then work their way to secondary findings.

• Researchers are obligated to describe all relevant ____, even those that are contrary to their predictions.

Discussion

• Having described the results, you are free in the _____ to interpret, evaluate, and discuss your findings.

• As a first step, discuss the results in terms of the original purpose or hypothesis of the study.

• Most researchers begin the discussion with a statement of the central findings and how they relate to the goals or hypotheses of the study. They then move on to discuss other findings.

In-text citation and reference list entry

In this system, each work used in a paper has two parts:

Parenthetical citations

use an ampersand (&) between names for work with two authors or before the last author when all names must be included to avoid ambiguity.

Narrative citations

always spell out the word “and.”

Reference List

• All references cited in the text must appear in a reference list that begins on a new page labeled _____ immediately after the discussion section.

• References are listed in alphabetical order by the first author’s last name.

Prior to beginning the study

• Consult the code of ethics for your professional organization early in the process

• Apply to the institutional review board

  • Assess the potential for risk

  • Consider the special needs of vulnerable populations

  • Consider the informed consent process

Beginning of the study

• Identify a beneficial research problem; studying the problem should be beneficial to the participants

• Disclose the purpose of the study; develop the purpose statement and how it will be explained to the participants

• Do not pressure participants into signing consent forms; participation should be voluntary

• Respect norms and charters of indigenous cultures

Collecting the data

• Respect the site; disrupt normal operations as little as possible

• Make sure all participants receive the benefits

• Avoid deception of participant

• Respect potential power imbalances

• Avoid exploitation of participants

• Avoid collecting harmful information

Analyzing the data

• Avoid going native; do not “take sides” by only reporting results that place the participants in a favorable light

• Avoid disclosing only positive results; it is dishonest to withhold results

• Respect the privacy of the participants

Reporting, sharing and storing data

• Avoid falsifying authorship, evidence, data, findings or conclusions

• Do not plagiarize

• Avoid disclosing information that would harm participants; maintain confidentiality or, in cases where participants do not want their identities concealed, inform them about the potential risks of non-confidentiality

• Communicate in a clear, straightforward and appropriate language

• Share data with others; provide copies of research reports to participants and stakeholders, publishing in multiple languages when needed

• Keep raw data and other instruments for a reasonable period of time (APA recommends 5 years)

• Do not duplicate or piecemeal publications; avoid publishing papers in which authors present the same data, discussions, and conclusions without offering new material

• Complete proof of compliance and lack of conflict of interest statements

• Understand who owns the data