third boosters

**Urine collection occurs in the _______ of the kidney.**

* cortex
* medulla
* columns
* pelvis

pelvis

**What fraction of the cardiac output is delivered to the kidneys each minute?**

* 1/1000
* 1/2
* 1/4
* 3/4

1/4

**The blood-filtering structure of the kidney is called the ________.**

* glomerular capsule
* renal tubule
* glomerulus
* nephron

* glomerulus

**The urine-forming units of the kidney are the ________.**

* glomerular capsules
* renal tubules
* glomeruli
* nephrons

nephrons

\n **Based on the histology of a renal tubule, which section would be most severely inhibited if simple squamous epithelium were damaged?**

* Proximal convoluted tubule
* Thin segment of the nephron loop
* Thick segment of the nephron loop
* Distal convoluted tubule

Thin segment of the nephron loop

**The vasa recta are associated with which structures in the kidney?**

* Glomeruli
* Juxtamedullary nephrons
* Afferent arterioles
* Cortical nephrons

Juxtamedullary nephrons

The juxtaglomerular complex is made of ________ cells from the afferent arteriole and the ________ cells of the DCT.

* mesangial; filtration
* filtration; mesangial
* granular; macula densa
* macula densa; granular

* granular; macula densa

**Which of the following factors contribute(s) to the higher filtration rate in the glomerular capillaries compared with other capillary beds?**

* The glomerular capillaries are fenestrated.
* The diameter of the efferent arteriole is smaller than the diameter of the afferent arteriole.
* The visceral layer of the glomerular capsule is very porous.
* All of the above contribute.

All of the above contribute.

How would giving a patient intravenous albumin affect filtration?

* Due to higher colloid osmotic pressure, the net filtration pressure would be lower.
* Too much protein in the diet would abolish all filtration.
* High blood pressure from increased plasma proteins would increase filtration to twice its normal rate.
* Filtration would be unchanged, but the kidneys would suffer damage.

\

Due to higher colloid osmotic pressure, the net filtration pressure would be lower.

**What type of response by the afferent arterioles would you expect if blood pressure increased?**

* The afferent arterioles would constrict.
* The afferent arterioles would dilate.
* The afferent arterioles would stimulate renin release.
* The afferent arterioles would not respond to blood pressure changes.

The afferent arterioles would constrict.

**Autoregulatory mechanisms are most effective ________.**

* for renin secretion
* when the arterial pressure drops below 80 mm Hg
* at releasing epinephrine
* when the arterial pressure is between 80 and 180 mm Hg

when the arterial pressure is between 80 and 180 mm Hg

**Extrinsic controls regulate glomerular filtration rate as a means of regulating ________.**

* systemic blood pressure
* cardiac output
* urine formation
* red blood cell production

systemic blood pressure

**Which of the following general functions can be assigned to the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system?**

* Water conservation
* Blood pressure elevation
* Lowering blood sodium levels
* Both a and b

\

Both a and b

**What would be the effect on urine output if sodium channels in the tubule cells were inhibited?**

* The volume would increase.
* The volume would decrease, then quickly resume.
* The volume would decrease by half the sodium concentration.
* The volume would decrease by one-tenth the sodium concentration.

The volume would increase.

**Where does primary active transport of sodium occur in proximal convoluted tubule cells?**

* Apical membrane
* Basolateral membrane
* Lateral membrane
* Endothelial membrane

Basolateral membrane

**Why is glucose in the urine an indicator of diabetes mellitus?**

* Glucose occupies all the transport carriers and it is no longer reabsorbed.
* Because diabetics cannot regulate their glucose.
* When blood glucose is high, it is secreted in the urine.
* Because diabetics have high levels of glucagon.

Glucose occupies all the transport carriers and it is no longer reabsorbed.

**Why do high levels of potassium stimulate aldosterone secretion?**

* Aldosterone stimulates potassium secretion at potassium-specific pumps.
* Aldosterone stimulates the sodium-potassium pump to reabsorb sodium while simultaneously secreting potassium.
* Aldosterone stimulates the sodium-potassium pump to secrete sodium while simultaneously reabsorbing potassium.
* High levels of potassium accompany high levels of sodium.

Aldosterone stimulates the sodium-potassium pump to reabsorb sodium while simultaneously secreting potassium.

**Which of the following processes in urine formation is important for regulating blood pH?**

* Secretion
* Reabsorption
* Filtration
* Countercurrent multiplication

Secretion

**Drinking too much alcohol results in a headache the next day. Why does this happen?**

* Alcohol stimulates pain receptors in the brain.
* Alcohol stimulates sodium reabsorption.
* Alcohol stimulates aldosterone secretion.
* Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion.

Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion.

**Why is the osmolarity of medullary fluid in the kidney almost four times higher than the osmolarity of plasma?**

* The nephron loop acts as a countercurrent multiplier and contributes solutes to the interstitial fluid.
* Urea is recycled from the collecting duct and is transported to the interstitial fluid.
* The medullary cells in the kidney synthesize solutes to establish the high osmolarity.
* Both a and b occur.

Both a and b occur.

**How does ADH contribute to the formation of concentrated urine?**

* ADH increases the permeability of the ascending limb of the nephron loop to water.
* ADH increases the permeability of the descending limb of the nephron loop to water.
* ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water by stimulating the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membrane.
* ADH decreases the permeability of the collecting duct to water by inhibiting the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membrane.

ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water by stimulating the insertion of aquaporins into the apical membrane.

**What role do the vasa recta play in urine formation?**

* The vasa recta create the medullary osmotic gradient.
* The vasa recta protect the medullary osmotic gradient by preventing rapid removal of salt.
* The vasa recta receive the dilute filtrate from the distal convoluted tubule.
* The vasa recta deliver urea to the medullary interstitial fluid.

The vasa recta protect the medullary osmotic gradient by preventing rapid removal of salt.

**When considering drug administration, why is it important to know the renal clearance rate of the drug?**

* It dictates the dosage and frequency of administration of drugs.
* It denotes how often drugs are recycled in the kidney.
* It is used to determine the healing rate of an infection.
* All of the above are factors in renal clearance rate.

It dictates the dosage and frequency of administration of drugs.

Which of the following constitutes the largest solute component of urine?

* Sodium
* Potassium
* Urea
* Creatine

Urea

**Urine from a person with uncontrolled diabetes mellitus has a(n) _______ due to the presence of _______.**

* brown color, bile pigments
* fruity odor, acetone
* acidic pH, protein
* high specific gravity, sodium chloride

fruity odor, acetone

Which of the following is not a layer of the ureter?

* Muscularis
* Mucosa
* Adventitia
* Endothelium

Endothelium

**What features of the bladder predispose it to being able to stretch and relax repeatedly?**

* The wall contains smooth muscle.
* The trigone acts as a spring when the bladder empties.
* The walls are highly folded into rugae and the epithelium is transitional.
* When the bladder is emptied, the digestive viscera compress it.

The walls are highly folded into rugae and the epithelium is transitional.

**The process of voiding the bladder is called ______.**

* micturition
* the urethral reflex
* detrusor activation
* incontinence

micturition

**What is the functional difference between a male urethra and a female urethra?**

* Males have three urethral sphincters.
* The male urethra is shared with the reproductive system.
* The male urethra is connected to the renal pelvis.
* The female urethra is much longer than a male's. 

The male urethra is shared with the reproductive system.

**Which of the following is not a change that occurs with old age?**

* The bladder shrinks.
* The number of nephrons decreases.
* Bladder tone decreases.
* Nocturia decreases.

Nocturia decreases.

**Which structures exit at the hilum of the kidney?**


1. Renal artery and nerves
2. Renal vein and ureter
3. Renal capsule and renal sinus
4. 1 and 2 are correct

1 and 2 are correct

**Where does urine production begin?**


1. Renal artery
2. Minor calyces
3. Nephron
4. Collecting duct

Nephron

**How are cortical and juxtamedullary nephrons structurally different?**


1. Cortical nephrons are surrounded by vasa recta. 
2. Cortical nephrons have very short PCTs.
3. Juxtamedullary nephrons have longer loops of Henle.
4. All of the above are differences.

1. Juxtamedullary nephrons have longer loops of Henle.
2. All of the above are differences.

**Which portion of a nephron is** ***not*** **in the renal cortex?**


1. Proximal convoluted tubule
2. Distal convoluted tubule
3. Collecting duct
4. Loop of Henle

Loop of Henle

**Why don’t plasma proteins pass into the capsular space under normal circumstances?**


1. Glomerular capillary pores are too small.
2. Glomerular blood pressure is too low.
3. Glomerular filtration rate is too low.
4. Glomerular blood flow is too slow.

Glomerular capillary pores are too small.

**Damage to which part of the nephron interferes with hormonal control of blood pressure?**


1. Bowman’s capsule
2. Juxtaglomerular apparatus
3. PCT
4. Loop of Henle

Juxtaglomerular apparatus

**What is the composition of the filtrate in the capsular space?**


1. Like urine, only more concentrated
2. Similar to water
3. Like urine, only less concentrated 
4. Similar to plasma, only no proteins

Similar to plasma, only no proteins

**Why is the presence of microvilli important to the epithelial tissue of the PCT?**


1. Because reabsorption is occurring
2. Because filtration is occurring
3. Because secretion of toxins and ions is occurring
4. Because urine elimination is occurring

Because reabsorption is occurring

**How does the diameter of the lumen of the loop of Henle change along its length?**


1. The lumen is widest near the PCT.
2. The lumen is the same diameter along its length.
3. The lumen is narrower where water reabsorption is occurring.
4. None of these is correct.

none of these are correct

What event occurs when the plasma concentration of a substance exceeds its tubular maximum?


1. Glomerular blood pressure increases.
2. Filtration shuts down.
3. Excess is excreted in urine.
4. Glomerular osmotic pressure decreases.

Excess is excreted in urine.

**Why are glomerular pressures higher than pressure in other capillaries?**


1. The efferent arteriole has a smaller diameter than the afferent arteriole, increasing resistance.
2. Sodium content of the filtrate increases pressure.
3. E and NE cause increased glomerular pressure.
4. The length of the afferent arteriole is longer than the efferent arteriole.

The efferent arteriole has a smaller diameter than the afferent arteriole, increasing resistance.

**What nephron structures are involved in filtration?**


1. PCT, lamina densa, and descending loop of Henle
2. Filtration slits of the podocytes and PCT
3. Glomerular capillaries, lamina densa, and filtration slits of the podocytes
4. Glomerular capillaries and PCT

Glomerular capillaries, lamina densa, and filtration slits of the podocytes

**What is the role of capsular hydrostatic pressure (CsHP)?**


1. Pushes water and solutes out of plasma into the filtrate
2. Draws water out of the filtrate and into plasma
3. Pushes water and solutes out of filtrate into plasma
4. Regulates blood pressure

Pushes water and solutes out of plasma into the filtrate

**What direct affect does** ***sympathetic activation*** **have on GFR?**


1. Produces powerful vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole
2. Metabolic waste buildup
3. Dilation of the afferent arteriole
4. Dilation of glomerular capillaries and constriction of the efferent arteriole

Produces powerful vasoconstriction of the afferent arteriole

**All of the following** ***except*** **____ are effects of angiotensin II.** 


1. Elevation of glomerular pressures and GFR
2. Inhibition of ADH release
3. Elevation of arterial pressure throughout the body
4. Stimulation of NA reabsorption in the DCT

Elevation of glomerular pressures and GFR

**What effect does an** ***increased*** **amount of aldosterone have on K+ concentration of urine?**


1. K+ increases 
2. K+ decreases 
3. No effect
4. Impossible to predict

K+ decreases 

**What effect does** ***decreased*** **Na+ concentration of filtrate have on the pH of tubular fluid?**


1. Tubular fluid pH will be higher
2. Tubular fluid pH will be lower
3. There is not an effect on pH
4. Tubular fluid neutral, pH 7

Tubular fluid pH will be higher

**How would the absence of juxtamedullary nephrons affect the volume of urine and its osmotic concentration?**


1. Decrease volume; decrease osmotic concentration
2. Decrease volume; increase osmotic concentration
3. Increase volume; decrease osmotic concentration
4. Increase volume; increase osmotic concentration 

Increase volume; decrease osmotic concentration

**Where is concentration of urine the** ***greatest*****? Why?**


1. In the PCT/the PCT is where most reabsorption is occurring
2. In the medulla/concentrating mechanism relies on osmosis
3. In the DCT/water diffuses out
4. The glomerulus/it has highest concentration of solutes

1. In the medulla/concentrating mechanism relies on osmosis

**Why does a** ***decrease*** **in Na+ in the distal convoluted tubule lead to an** ***increase*** **in blood pressure?**


1. Because it decreases water content in blood
2. Because it increases renin production
3. Because it increases filtration rate
4. Because it increases water loss through kidneys

1. Because it increases renin production

**The esophagus is a part of the __________, while the pancreas is considered a(n) __________ when it comes to the digestive system.**

* alimentary canal; accessory digestive organ
* stomach; propulsion organ
* accessory organs; alimentary canal component
* pharynx; mechanical breakdown organ

alimentary canal; accessory digestive organ

**The majority of absorption occurs in the __________.**

* stomach
* small intestine
* large intestine
* mouth

\

small intestine

**Stimuli that regulate gastrointestinal tract activity are generated by __________.**

* the CNS
* chemoreceptors in the gut
* the enteric nerve plexus
* all of the above

all of the above

**Choose the answer that lists the four layers of the wall of the alimentary canal in the appropriate order from innermost to outermost.**

* Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa
* Submucosa, mucosa, serosa, muscularis externa
* Serosa, mucosa, muscularis externa, submucosa
* Muscularis externa, submucosa, serosa, mucosa

Mucosa, submucosa, muscularis externa, and serosa

**Which of the following types of epithelial tissues predominates in most of the digestive tract?**

* Simple squamous
* Stratified squamous
* Simple columnar
* Simple cuboidal

Simple columnar

**In general, parasympathetic inputs to the gut are __________, while sympathetic inputs are __________.**

* stimulatory; inhibitory
* rapid; long lasting
* inhibitory; stimulatory
* hormonal; neural

stimulatory; inhibitory

**Chemical digestion is initiated in the __________.**

* mouth
* stomach
* small intestine
* large intestine

mouth

**Why does your mouth suddenly “go dry” when you are about to deliver a presentation to a large crowd?**

* Parasympathetic activity stimulates salivation.
* Parasympathetic activity inhibits salivation.
* Sympathetic activity stimulates salivation.
* Sympathetic activity inhibits salivation.

Sympathetic activity inhibits salivation.

**Most teeth are primarily composed of __________.**

* enamel
* pulp
* dentin
* cementum

dentin

**What is a possible side effect of weakening of the cardiac sphincter?**

* Acid reflux into the esophagus
* Uncontrollable bowel movements
* Heart attack
* Rapid overfilling of the stomach

* Acid reflux into the esophagus
* \

**__________ involves over 22 muscle groups and includes the buccal phase and the pharyngeal-esophageal phase.**

* Mastication
* Bolus formation
* Deglutition
* Peristalsis

Deglutition

**The stomach is able to expand to nearly 100 times its empty volume partly due to __________ in its walls.**

* microvilli
* rugae
* circular folds
* haustra 

rugae

**A patient with a low RBC count receives vitamin B12 injections every 2 weeks. Why?**

* This patient is training for a triathlon.
* This patient is anemic and has low iron.
* Parietal cells in this patient’s stomach have ceased producing intrinsic factor.
* This patient’s parietal cells have stopped secreting HCl.

Parietal cells in this patient’s stomach have ceased producing intrinsic factor.

**Digestion of which of the following might be inhibited if a patient chronically consumes an antacid?**

* Lipid
* Carbohydrate
* Sugar
* Protein

Protein

**When your stomach growls in response to an ad on TV for food, the __________ phase of gastric secretion is initiated.**

* cephalic
* gastric
* intestinal
* gastrin

cephalic

**Meals high in protein __________ gastrin secretion from the gastric glands.**

* increase
* decrease
* have no effect on
* delay

increase

**The __________ cells are responsible for HCl production.**

* goblet
* mucous
* parietal
* chief

parietal

**The alkaline tide uses a(n) __________ in the basolateral membrane to move __________ out of the cell and __________ into the parietal cell.**

* symporter, chloride, bicarbonate
* symporter, bicarbonate, chloride
* antiporter, chloride, bicarbonate
* antiporter, bicarbonate, chloride

antiporter, bicarbonate, chloride

**A meal high in fat would __________.**

* stimulate rapid gastric emptying
* stimulate the intensity of the stomach’s peristaltic waves
* increase gastrin secretion
* inhibit gastric emptying

inhibit gastric emptying

**The __________ in the small intestine have a similar structure and function to the __________ in the stomach.**

* gastric pits; intestinal glands
* intestinal glands; gastric pits
* goblet cells; enteroendocrine cells
* brush border; rugae

intestinal glands; gastric pits

**In what way is the small intestine well adapted for nutrient absorption?**

* Acid secretions from the stomach are neutralized in the duodenum.
* CCK is released from the duodenum to promote liver and pancreatic secretion.
* It has a large surface area due to the presence of the circular folds, villi, and microvilli.
* The small intestine is very long and thin.

It has a large surface area due to the presence of the circular folds, villi, and microvilli.

**Which cells produce CCK in the intestine?**

* Simple columnar cells
* Goblet cells
* Intraepithelial lymphocytes
* Enteroendocrine cells

Enteroendocrine cells

**__________ macrophages are located in the liver.**

* Intraepithelial
* Langerhans
* Stellate
* Hepatocyte

Stellate

**The gallbladder __________ bile by __________ water and ions.**

* concentrates, absorbing
* stores, preventing absorption of
* dilutes, secreting
* modifies, secreting

concentrates, absorbing

**__________ stimulates the gallbladder to contract.**

* Secretin
* CCK
* Gastrin
* Fatty chyme

CCK

**You would expect blood levels of __________ to be highest when the pH of stomach chyme entering the duodenum is at its lowest.**

* secretin
* CCK
* gastrin
* H+

secretin

**Cirrhosis of the liver would most severely impact digestion of __________.**

* carbohydrates
* amino acids
* proteins
* lipids

lipids

**In terms of gastrointestinal function, the large intestine’s greatest contribution is __________.**

* exposing the chyme to the rich assortment of pancreatic enzymes through the process of segmentation
* absorption of all primary nutrients
* absorption of water
* regulation of gastric motility

absorption of water

**Which of the following enzymes breaks down lipids?**

* Amylase
* Pepsin
* Bile
* None of the above

None of the above

**A(n) __________ nutrient is one that the body cannot synthesize rapidly enough to be useful.**

* regulatory
* essential
* endemic
* caloric

essential

**What is a good source of unsaturated fats?**

* Nuts
* Meats
* Margarine
* Dairy

Nuts

**It is possible for vegetarians to obtain complete proteins by combining __________ and __________.**

* bread; vitamins
* fats; pasta
* legumes; cereal grains
* milk; sugar

legumes; cereal grains

**The major metabolic function for most vitamins is that they assist enzymes by serving as __________.**

* sources of ATP
* active sites
* substrates
* coenzymes

coenzymes

**Which of the following minerals is required in moderate amounts (>200 mg per day)?**

* Iron
* Magnesium
* Iodine
* Fluorine

Magnesium

**In general metabolic terms, food digestion is a form of __________, while building new protein molecules is a form of __________.**

* metabolism; cellular respiration
* anabolism; catabolism
* cellular respiration; metabolism
* catabolism; anabolism

catabolism; anabolism

**ATP produced during the Krebs cycle is formed by what mechanism?**

* Substrate-level phosphorylation
* Deamination
* Oxidative phosphorylation
* Photophosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation

**What is the true function of molecular oxygen acquired by the lungs?**

* O2 catalyzes the breaking of bonds in the glucose molecule.
* O2 catalyzes the synthesis of ATP.
* O2 serves as the final electron acceptor for the oxidation of food molecules.
* O2 drives energy-dependent processes in our cells

O2 serves as the final electron acceptor for the oxidation of food molecules.

**Predict what would happen to ATP production if a virus pierced holes in the inner mitochondrial membrane**.

* ATP production would be unchanged because the actual enzymes would not be affected.
* ATP production would increase 10 times because more H+ could flow back into the matrix.
* ATP production would decrease because a hydrogen ion gradient could not be established.
* ATP production would decrease because the virus destroyed the ATP synthase enzymes.

ATP production would decrease because a hydrogen ion gradient could not be established.

Which of the following processes is likely to occur in the skeletal muscle cells during sprinting?

* Glycolysis
* Oxidative phosphorylation
* The Krebs cycle
* Lactic acid oxidation to pyruvic acid

Glycolysis

**Why don’t the electrons carried by NADH in the cytosol generate as many ATP as the electrons carried by NADH in the mitochondrial matrix?**

* There aren’t as many electrons in the cytosol.
* The cytosolic electrons must be shuttled to the matrix at a loss of energy.
* The cytosolic electrons are transported to a different ATP synthase that is less efficient.
* They are smaller electrons.

The cytosolic electrons must be shuttled to the matrix at a loss of energy.

**The process whereby excess glucose is stored in cells is called __________.**

* glycogenesis
* glycogenolysis
* gluconeogenesis
* glycolysis

glycogenesis

**Why isn’t it sufficient to reduce only dietary fat intake to prevent new fatty deposits from forming in the body?**

* Because ketone bodies form when fat intake is insufficient.
* Acetyl CoA is a starting point for fatty acid synthesis.
* Because muscle gets converted to fat.
* Because cholesterol gets converted to fat.

* Acetyl CoA is a starting point for fatty acid synthesis.
* \

**Which of the following molecules is produced in the process of detoxifying harmful ammonia?**

* Alpha-ketoglutaric acid
* Amine
* Urea
* Keto acids

Urea

**What is the primary process by which insulin is released after a meal is ingested?**

* Insulin is secreted in direct response to blood glucose.
* The brain sends a hormone to the pancreas to stimulate insulin release.
* Insulin release is constant.
* The vagus nerve innervates the pancreas and upon food ingestion fires action potentials that stimulate insulin secretion.

* Insulin is secreted in direct response to blood glucose.

**What is the primary objective during the postabsorptive state?**

* To collect and remove glucose from the blood and deposit it in cells
* To convert fat to protein
* To maintain blood glucose at around 70–110 mg/100 ml of blood
* To elevate blood glucose to the highest possible level to ensure adequate delivery to the brain

To maintain blood glucose at around 70–110 mg/100 ml of blood

**Where are the two primary sources of glucose during the postabsorptive state?**

* Greater omentum and subcutaneous layer
* Stomach and intestine
* Liver and skeletal muscle
* Brain and skin

Liver and skeletal muscle

**Hyperglycemic hormones include glucagon and __________.**

* insulin
* epinephrine
* GIP
* aldosterone

epinephrine

**About __________ of the body’s required cholesterol is dietary.**

* 50%
* 85%
* 15%
* 100%

15%

**Why are high-density lipoproteins (HDLs) considered “good”?**

* The cholesterol transported by HDLs is destined for destruction.
* HDLs transport cholesterol to the peripheral tissues for biosynthesis of steroid hormones.
* HDLs transport cholesterol to adipose tissue.
* HDLs are actually considered “bad” cholesterol.

The cholesterol transported by HDLs is destined for destruction.

**Heat is produced internally by __________.**

* friction between body parts
* breaking of bonds within ATP
* muscle contraction
* all of the above

all of the above