Actual APUSH study guide

Revolution of 1800

The election of 1800 in which Thomas Jefferson defeated John Adams, marking the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history.

• Significance: It established the precedent for the peaceful transfer of power.

• Impact: Set the stage for the Democratic-Republican dominance in early 19th-century politics.

• Sides: Thomas Jefferson (Democratic-Republican) vs. John Adams (Federalist).

Embargo Act of 1807

Legislation under Jefferson that banned all American trade with foreign nations, aimed to force Britain and France to respect U.S. neutrality.

• Significance: Reflected America’s struggle for neutrality amid European conflicts.

• Impact: Led to economic hardship in the U.S., particularly for merchants.

• Sides: U.S. government vs. British and French governments.

Louisiana Purchase

The 1803 acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling U.S. territory.

• Significance: Expanded the United States significantly and provided land for future growth.

• Impact: Opened new lands for settlement and increased tensions over slavery.

• Sides: United States vs. France.

War of 1812 (Primary Cause)

Caused primarily by British impressment of American sailors, interference with American trade, and support for Native American resistance.

• Significance: Highlighted issues of national sovereignty and maritime rights.

• Impact: Fostered a sense of national identity and led to military and economic changes.

• Sides: United States vs. Great Britain.

Lewis and Clark

Explorers sent by Jefferson (1804-1806) to map and survey the Louisiana Territory.

• Significance: Provided valuable information about the geography and resources of the western lands.

• Impact: Encouraged westward expansion and exploration.

• Sides: United States explorers vs. unknown western territories.

Treaty of Ghent

Ended the War of 1812 in 1814, restoring prewar boundaries with no territorial gains for either side.

• Significance: Marked the end of conflicts that arose from the War of 1812.

• Impact: Restored peace and paved the way for future U.S.-British relations.

• Sides: United States vs. Great Britain.

Hartford Convention

A meeting of New England Federalists in 1814 to oppose the War of 1812 and discuss constitutional amendments to limit federal power.

• Significance: Demonstrated growing sectional tensions and dissent against the federal government.

• Impact: Contributed to the decline of the Federalist Party.

• Sides: New England Federalists vs. federal government.

Monroe Doctrine

A 1823 U.S. foreign policy declaring opposition to European interference in the Americas.

• Significance: Established the United States' sphere of influence in the Western Hemisphere.

• Impact: Increased tensions between the U.S. and European powers over the Americas.

• Sides: United States vs. European nations.

How John Marshall Ruled in the Supreme Court

Chief Justice whose rulings strengthened federal power and judicial authority, including establishing judicial review.

• Significance: Established the judiciary as an equal branch of government.

• Impact: Ensured the federal government had authority over state laws.

• Sides: Federal government vs. state governments.

Henry Clay’s American System

A plan for economic development involving a national bank, protective tariffs, and internal improvements.

• Significance: Aimed to unify and modernize the American economy.

• Impact: Laid the foundation for future economic policies and infrastructure development.

• Sides: Supporters of modernization vs. those favoring Jeffersonian agrarianism.

Era of Good Feelings

A period during Monroe's presidency (1817-1825) marked by the decline of the Federalist Party.

• Significance: Reflected a sense of national unity and political cooperation.

• Impact: Led to increased nationalism and the subsequent rise of new political parties.

• Sides: Democratic-Republican dominance vs. Federalist decline.

Effect of the War of 1812 on U.S.

Increased nationalism, industrial growth, and a sense of independence in the U.S.

• Significance: Fostered a stronger national identity and pride.

• Impact: Prompted economic independence and increased domestic manufacturing.

• Sides: United States vs. Great Britain.

Indian Removal Act (1830)

Legislation under Andrew Jackson that forced Native American tribes to relocate west of the Mississippi River.

• Significance: Enabled westward expansion at the expense of Native American rights.

• Impact: Resulted in the displacement and suffering of thousands of Native Americans.

• Sides: U.S. government vs. Native American tribes.

Trail of Tears

The forced migration of the Cherokee and other tribes to Indian Territory following the Indian Removal Act.

• Significance: Symbolized the U.S. government's policy of removing Native Americans from their ancestral lands.

• Impact: Led to significant loss of life and culture among the affected tribes.

• Sides: U.S. government vs. Cherokee and other tribes.

Nullification Crisis

A political standoff in 1832-33 over South Carolina's attempt to nullify federal tariffs.

• Significance: Highlighted the conflict between state and federal authority.

• Impact: Set a precedent for future states' rights debates.

• Sides: South Carolina vs. federal government.

Spoils System

The practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters, promoting loyalty to parties.

• Significance: Brought the concept of political patronage into U.S. politics.

• Impact: Led to allegations of corruption and inefficiency in government.

• Sides: Political supporters vs. political opponents.

Whig Party

A political party formed in opposition to Andrew Jackson, supporting a strong federal government and modernization.

• Significance: Facilitated a significant shift in American political alignments.

• Impact: Contributed to the emergence of a two-party system in the U.S.

• Sides: Whigs vs. Democrats.

Cult of Domesticity

The 19th-century ideal that women’s roles were limited to the home and focused on child-rearing and moral guidance.

• Significance: Defined women's expected roles in society during the era.

• Impact: Limited women's opportunities outside the home and contributed to the fight for women's rights.

• Sides: Society's traditional views vs. emerging women's rights movements.

Eli Whitney

Inventor of the cotton gin and a pioneer in interchangeable parts.

• Significance: Revolutionized cotton processing and manufacturing.

• Impact: Increased efficiency in production and contributed to the expansion of slavery in the South.

• Sides: Industrial innovators vs. traditional agricultural economy.

Lowell System

A labor system where young women worked in textile mills, living in company-owned boarding houses.

• Significance: Marked an early instance of organized labor and female employment.

• Impact: Empowered women by providing them economic independence.

• Sides: Factory owners vs. young female workers.

Nativism

An anti-immigrant movement advocating for policies favoring native-born Americans.

• Significance: Reflected fears and tensions related to immigration during the 19th century.

• Impact: Influenced immigration policies and created divisions in society.

• Sides: Native-born Americans vs. immigrant populations.

Impact of Urbanization

Rapid growth of cities due to industrialization, immigration, and internal migration.

• Significance: Transformed the social and economic landscape of the U.S.

• Impact: Created challenges such as overcrowding, sanitation issues, and infrastructural strain.

• Sides: Urban centers vs. rural communities.

Seneca Falls Convention (1848)

The first women's rights convention, calling for gender equality and women's suffrage.

• Significance: The event marked the start of the organized women's rights movement.

• Impact: Brought national attention to women's issues and increased activism.

• Sides: Suffragists vs. traditional gender roles.

Abolitionist Movement

A social and political movement to end slavery in the U.S.

• Significance: Challenged the institution of slavery and fought for human rights.

• Impact: Led to significant changes in laws and social attitudes towards slavery.

• Sides: Abolitionists vs. pro-slavery advocates.

Dorothea Dix

Reformer advocating for better treatment of the mentally ill and improved conditions in asylums.

• Significance: Pioneered efforts to establish mental health care and reform institutions.

• Impact: Raised awareness about mental health issues and led to reforms.

• Sides: Reformers vs. mental health institutions.

Second Great Awakening

A religious revival movement promoting individual salvation and social reform.

• Significance: Stimulated diverse religious movements and societal reforms.

• Impact: Influenced various social movements, including abolition and women's rights.

• Sides: Evangelical reformers vs. secular society.

Transcendentalism

A philosophical movement emphasizing individual intuition, self-reliance, and a connection to nature.

• Significance: Challenged traditional norms and promoted individualism.

• Impact: Influenced literature, philosophy, and social reform movements.

• Sides: Transcendentalists vs. conventional society.

Temperance Movement

A campaign to limit or ban alcohol consumption.

• Significance: Aimed to address social issues linked to alcohol.

• Impact: Contributed to the Prohibition movement in the early 20th century.

• Sides: Temperance advocates vs. alcohol producers.

David Walker (1829)

An African American abolitionist and author advocating for immediate resistance against slavery.

• Significance: Promoted radical approaches to abolitionism.

• Impact: Inspired enslaved individuals to fight for freedom.

• Sides: David Walker and abolitionists vs. pro-slavery supporters.

Frederick Douglass (1841)

A leading abolitionist, orator, and writer advocating for the end of slavery.

• Significance: Famed for his powerful speeches and writings against slavery.

• Impact: Influenced public opinion and the abolitionist movement.

• Sides: Frederick Douglass and abolitionists vs. slavery supporters.

Sojourner Truth (1840s)

An abolitionist and women’s rights activist known for her speech "Ain't I a Woman?"

• Significance: Advocated for both racial and gender equality.

• Impact: Highlighted the intersections of race and gender in social justice.

• Sides: Sojourner Truth vs. societal norms.

William Lloyd Garrison (1831)

Founder of 'The Liberator' newspaper and a leading abolitionist pushing for immediate emancipation.

• Significance: Used media to spread abolitionist ideas and mobilize support.

• Impact: Played a pivotal role in shaping the abolitionist movement.

• Sides: William Lloyd Garrison vs. pro-slavery factions.

American Colonization Society (1816)

Organization promoting the relocation of free African Americans to Africa.

• Significance: Focused on providing a solution to the question of slavery.

• Impact: Created divisions within the abolitionist movement regarding strategies.

• Sides: American Colonization Society vs. abolitionists.

Ways Slaves Fought the System of Slavery

Enslaved people resisted through revolts, work slowdowns, and escapes via the Underground Railroad.

• Significance: Highlighted the resilience and agency of enslaved individuals.

• Impact: Undermined the institution of slavery and inspired future resistance efforts.

• Sides: Enslaved individuals vs. slaveholders.

Impact the Cotton Gin Had on Slavery (1793)

Eli Whitney’s invention made cotton production more profitable, increasing demand for enslaved labor.

• Significance: Revitalized the economy of the Southern states.

• Impact: Directly contributed to the expansion of slavery in the U.S.

• Sides: Plantation owners vs. enslaved people.

Nat Turner’s Rebellion (1831)

A violent slave rebellion in Virginia led by Nat Turner.

• Significance: Raised fears among white Southerners about slave uprisings.

• Impact: Resulted in stricter slave laws and repression in the South.

• Sides: Nat Turner and enslaved individuals vs. white Southern slaveholders.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848)

Ended the Mexican-American War and ceded much of Mexico’s northern territory to the U.S.

• Significance: Significantly increased U.S. territory and influence.

• Impact: Led to further debates over the extension of slavery into new territories.

• Sides: United States vs. Mexico.

Wilmot Proviso (1846)

Proposed law to ban slavery in territories acquired from Mexico.

• Significance: Embodied the conflict between free and slave states.

• Impact: Ignited heated debates and increased sectional tensions.

• Sides: Wilmot and abolitionists vs. pro-slavery advocates.

Oregon Trail (1830s–1860s)

A route used by settlers moving west to Oregon Territory.

• Significance: Facilitated the westward expansion of the American population.

• Impact: Opened up new lands for agriculture and settlement.

• Sides: Settlers vs. Native American tribes.

Acquiring California (1848)

Gained through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo; gold rush spurred rapid settlement.

• Significance: Marked a significant point in the era of Manifest Destiny.

• Impact: Led to conflicts over land and the status of slavery.

• Sides: United States vs. Mexican territory.

Manifest Destiny (1845)

The belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across the continent.

• Significance: Justified U.S. territorial expansion and policies.

• Impact: Contributed to conflicts with Native Americans and Mexico.

• Sides: Advocates of expansion vs. Native Americans and Mexicans.

Annexation of Texas Concerns (1845)

Texas’s annexation as a slave state raised fears of imbalance in Congress.

• Significance: Prompted debates over the expansion of slavery.

• Impact: Increased sectional tensions leading up to the Civil War.

• Sides: Pro-slavery supporters vs. anti-slavery advocates.

Fugitive Slave Law (1850)

Required citizens to assist in capturing runaway slaves and penalized those who helped escapees.

• Significance: Strengthened the institution of slavery and angered abolitionists.

• Impact: Increased resistance and activism among abolitionists and free blacks.

• Sides: Federal government vs. abolitionists.

Popular Sovereignty (1848)

Allowed residents of new territories to vote on whether to allow slavery.

• Significance: Introduced a measure of local control over the slavery issue.

• Impact: Resulted in violent conflicts such as “Bleeding Kansas.”

• Sides: Supporters of popular sovereignty vs. anti-slavery advocates.

Sectional Balance Concerns in 1848

Fears arose over whether new territories would upset the balance of free and slave states.

• Significance: Represented the deepening divide between North and South.

• Impact: Led to significant political conflicts over territory.

• Sides: Free state advocates vs. slave state advocates.

Harriet Tubman (1849)

A former enslaved woman who led over 300 people to freedom via the Underground Railroad.

• Significance: Symbolized courage and the quest for liberty among enslaved people.

• Impact: Facilitated escapes and raised awareness of the abolitionist movement.

• Sides: Harriet Tubman and abolitionists vs. slaveholders.

The Underground Railroad (1830s–1860s)

A network of secret routes and safe houses for helping enslaved people escape to freedom.

• Significance: Demonstrated organized resistance to slavery.

• Impact: Helped thousands of enslaved people escape to freedom.

• Sides: Abolitionists and conductors vs. slave catchers.

Compromise of 1850

A series of laws addressing slavery and territorial expansion, including admitting California as a free state.

• Significance: Aimed to ease tensions between North and South.

• Impact: Temporarily postponed the Civil War but failed to solve the underlying issues.

• Sides: Compromise supporters vs. sectional extremists.

“Bleeding Kansas” (1856)

Violent clashes in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers.

• Significance: Raised national attention to the violent conflict over slavery.

• Impact: Accelerated the march toward the Civil War.

• Sides: Pro-slavery forces vs. anti-slavery forces.

Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854)

Allowed popular sovereignty in Kansas and Nebraska, repealing the Missouri Compromise.

• Significance: Led to renewed conflict over the spread of slavery.

• Impact: Contributed to violent confrontations and political instability.

• Sides: Supporters of the act vs. opponents of slavery.

Know-Nothing Party (1850s)

A nativist political party that opposed immigration, particularly of Catholics.

• Significance: Reflected the growing nativist sentiment in antebellum America.

• Impact: Influenced political discussions and party dynamics.

• Sides: Nativists vs. immigrants.

Significance of the Election of 1860

Abraham Lincoln’s victory prompted Southern secession.

• Significance: Marked a turning point in U.S. history.

• Impact: Set the stage for the Civil War.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln (Republican) vs. Southern Democrats.

First State to Secede (1860)

South Carolina seceded following Lincoln’s election.

• Significance: Initiated the secession of other Southern states.

• Impact: Established a precedent for Southern states to leave the Union.

• Sides: South Carolina secessionists vs. the federal government.

John Brown’s Raid on Harpers Ferry (1859)

An attempt to start a slave rebellion by seizing a federal arsenal.

• Significance: Increased fears of slave uprisings in the South.

• Impact: Further polarized opinions on slavery and contributed to the Civil War.

• Sides: John Brown and abolitionists vs. federal government.

Freeport Doctrine (1858)

Stephen Douglas’s argument that territories could exclude slavery by not enacting pro-slavery laws.

• Significance: Engaged the debate about slavery in the territories.

• Impact: Divided democrats and led to further conflict over slavery.

• Sides: Stephen Douglas vs. Abraham Lincoln.

Lincoln-Douglas Debates (1858)

Debates over slavery between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the Illinois Senate race.

• Significance: Gained national attention for Lincoln and the anti-slavery cause.

• Impact: Set the stage for Lincoln’s later presidential campaign.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln (Republican) vs. Stephen Douglas (Democratic).

Dred Scott Decision (1857)

Supreme Court ruling that African Americans were not citizens and that Congress couldn't ban slavery in territories.

• Significance: Invalidated efforts to limit the spread of slavery.

• Impact: Deepened the divide between North and South and increased tensions.

• Sides: Dred Scott vs. the Supreme Court.

Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852)

Harriet Beecher Stowe’s novel exposing the horrors of slavery.

• Significance: Played a significant role in increasing anti-slavery sentiment in the North.

• Impact: Mobilized public opinion against slavery.

• Sides: Harriet Beecher Stowe vs. pro-slavery supporters.

Ft. Sumter (1861)

The first battle of the Civil War, where Confederate forces fired on the Union garrison.

• Significance: Marked the beginning of armed conflict between the North and South.

• Impact: United the North in support of the Union cause.

• Sides: Confederate forces vs. Union forces.

Lincoln’s Initial Stance on Slavery (1861)

Lincoln prioritized preserving the Union over abolishing slavery.

• Significance: His approach aimed to maintain national unity during the Civil War.

• Impact: Set the tone for his policies until the Emancipation Proclamation.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln vs. Confederate states.

Advantages and Disadvantages of the Union and Confederacy (1861)

Union: larger population and industrial base; Confederacy: better military leadership and defensive strategy.

• Significance: Defined the strategies and capabilities of both sides in the Civil War.

• Impact: Influenced the outcomes of various battles and the overall war.

• Sides: Union Army vs. Confederate Army.

Anaconda Plan (1861)

Union strategy to blockade Southern ports and control the Mississippi River.

• Significance: Aimed to suffocate the Southern economy and weaken their war effort.

• Impact: Played a critical role in the Union’s victory.

• Sides: Union forces vs. Confederate forces.

Role of Disease in the Civil War

Disease was the leading cause of death, killing more soldiers than battle.

• Significance: Highlighted the importance of medical practices and conditions in war.

• Impact: Led to advancements in medical care and practices.

• Sides: Soldiers vs. illnesses.

Military Strategies of the North and the South

North: Anaconda Plan and total war; South: defensive strategy.

• Significance: Determined the course and tactics of the Civil War.

• Impact: Influenced military outcomes and strategies.

• Sides: Union Army vs. Confederate Army.

Northern Economy During the War

The North’s industrial economy boomed due to war production.

• Significance: Supported the Union war effort and economic growth.

• Impact: Led to workforce changes and increased immigration.

• Sides: Industrialists vs. Confederacy.

Lincoln’s Use of Habeas Corpus (1861)

Lincoln suspended habeas corpus to arrest Confederate sympathizers.

• Significance: Raised constitutional questions about civil liberties during wartime.

• Impact: Set precedents for executive power in times of crisis.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln vs. dissidents.

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

An executive order issued by Lincoln freeing slaves in Confederate-held territories.

• Significance: Changed the Civil War's purpose to include the fight against slavery.

• Impact: Enabled African Americans to join the Union Army and increased the moral cause for the North.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln vs. Confederate states.

Battle of Vicksburg (1863)

A Union victory that gave control of the Mississippi River to the Union.

• Significance: A major turning point in the Civil War.

• Impact: Split the Confederacy and boosted Union morale.

• Sides: Union forces vs. Confederate forces.

Gettysburg Address (1863)

Lincoln’s speech emphasizing liberty, equality, and national unity.

• Significance: Reinforced the purpose of the war and the ideals of the nation.

• Impact: Became a symbol of commitment to democratic principles.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln vs. the Confederate cause.

Appomattox Court House (1865)

The location where General Lee surrendered to General Grant, ending the Civil War.

• Significance: Marked the conclusion of the Civil War and the defeat of the Confederacy.

• Impact: Set the stage for Reconstruction efforts.

• Sides: Union Army vs. Confederate Army.

Gettysburg and Antietam Similarity

Both pivotal battles that had significant strategic and morale implications.

• Significance: Highlighted the turning points in the Civil War.

• Impact: Altered the course and strategies of both armies.

• Sides: Union forces vs. Confederate forces.

13th Amendment (1865)

Abolished slavery in the United States.

• Significance: Represented a fundamental change in American society and law.

• Impact: Led to the emancipation of millions of enslaved individuals.

• Sides: Abolitionists vs. former slaveholders.

54th Massachusetts Infantry (1863)

An African American regiment known for valor at Fort Wagner.

• Significance: Demonstrated the bravery and capability of African American soldiers.

• Impact: Changed perceptions regarding the roles of black soldiers in the military.

• Sides: Union Army vs. Confederate forces.

Battle of Gettysburg (1863)

A major Union victory and the largest battle of the Civil War.

• Significance: Often regarded as the turning point of the Civil War.

• Impact: Marked a significant loss for the Confederacy.

• Sides: Union forces vs. Confederate forces.

General Sherman and Total War (1864)

Sherman’s strategy targeting both military and civilian resources.

• Significance: Aimed to destroy the South’s will to fight.

• Impact: Contributed to the weakening of the Confederate war effort.

• Sides: Union forces vs. Confederate resources.

1864 Election

Lincoln was re-elected, demonstrating continued Northern support for the war.

• Significance: Validated Lincoln’s policies and war efforts.

• Impact: Solidified the Union’s resolve to continue fighting.

• Sides: Abraham Lincoln vs. George McClellan.

Lincoln’s Assassination (1865)

Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth shortly after the Civil War’s end.

• Significance: Created a national crisis and mourning over Lincoln’s leadership.

• Impact: Complicated the Reconstruction process and leadership transition.

• Sides: John Wilkes Booth vs. Abraham Lincoln.

Economy of the Postwar South

The Southern economy was devastated, with agriculture in disarray.

• Significance: Resulted in significant social and economic upheaval.

• Impact: Led to the need for economic reform and rebuilding efforts.

• Sides: Southern economy vs. federal government.

14th Amendment (1868)

Granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S.

• Significance: Conferred citizenship rights and protections to freed slaves.

• Impact: Increased legal protections for all citizens.

• Sides: Radical Republicans vs. opponents of civil rights.

15th Amendment (1870)

Prohibited voting discrimination based on race, color, or previous servitude.

• Significance: Aimed to secure voting rights for African American men.

• Impact: Gave African Americans a voice in politics and government.

• Sides: Supporters of reconstruction vs. disenfranchisers.

Freedmen’s Bureau (1865)

A federal agency that provided education and assistance to freed slaves.

• Significance: Aimed to facilitate the transition to freedom for former slaves.

• Impact: Helped lay the foundation for civil rights improvements.

• Sides: Freedmen vs. former slaveholders and discriminatory practices.

Radical Republicans

A faction pushing for harsh Reconstruction policies and full rights for freed slaves.

• Significance: Influenced the direction of post-Civil War policies.

• Impact: Led to significant advancements and setbacks in civil rights.

• Sides: Radical Republicans vs. Southern Democrats.

Black Codes (1865–1866)

Laws in Southern states restricting African Americans’ freedoms.

• Significance: Attempted to maintain white supremacy and prevent integration.

• Impact: Sparked outrage and increased calls for civil rights.

• Sides: Southern lawmakers vs. civil rights advocates.

End of Reconstruction (1877)

Marked by the Compromise of 1877, ending federal efforts to enforce civil rights.

• Significance: Resulted in the withdrawal of federal support for enforcing civil rights.

• Impact: Led to the return of white supremacist systems in the South.

• Sides: Republican leaders vs. Southern Democrats.

Why Feminist Leaders Were Upset by the 14th and 15th Amendments

These amendments excluded women, splitting the suffrage movement.

• Significance: Highlighted tensions within the broader civil rights movement.

• Impact: Led to the creation of separate women’s rights organizations.

• Sides: Feminist leaders vs. civil rights advocates.

Political Corruption During Reconstruction

Graft and bribery were widespread in state and federal governments.

• Significance: Undermined the effectiveness of Reconstruction efforts.

• Impact: Fueled public resentment and led to calls for reform.

• Sides: Corrupt officials vs. reform advocates.

KKK (1865)

A white supremacist group opposing Reconstruction and suppressing African American rights.

• Significance: Represented the violent backlash against civil rights advancements.

• Impact: Instilled fear and suppressed Black political participation.

• Sides: Ku Klux Klan vs. African Americans and supporters of Reconstruction.

Why Johnson Was Tried for Impeachment (1868)

Johnson violated the Tenure of Office Act by removing Secretary of War Edwin Stanton.

• Significance: Highlighted the conflict between the presidency and Congress during Reconstruction.

• Impact: Set a precedent for the impeachment process.

• Sides: Andrew Johnson vs. Congress.

William Seward’s Purchase (1867)

The U.S. purchased Alaska from Russia for $7.2 million.

• Significance: Expanded U.S. territory significantly.

• Impact: Later recognized for its strategic and economic value.

• Sides: U.S. government vs. Russian Empire.