AP Psych Unit 0

Psychology

The science of mental processes and behavior

Psychoanalytic perspective

Sigmeund Freud→ Austrian Neurologist. Believed psychology illness was different than physical illness and could be cured through talking therapy

Focused on the cause, development and treatment of abnormal behavior Emphasized the role of unconscious mind: the memories, feelings, and drives that are outside of our awareness

Believed that early childhood experiences influence personality and behavior Believed that we are driven primarily by unconscious desires and feelings .

Criticized as being unscientific since the unconscious mind cannot be studied

Unconscious

The unconscious consists of mental processes that occur automatically and are not available to introspection or direct examination by our conscious mind

Behaviorism perspective (Watson)

Believed psychology should only focus on what could be objectively observed and measured Redefined psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior Watson conducted infamous Little Albert experiment Not concerned with things that cannot be directly observed, such as thoughts, feelings, and the unconscious mind Believes behavior is learned (conditioned by environment) Focuses on how behaviors are learned and modified

Behavior

encompasses any observable action, response, or conduct exhibited by an individual. It includes both voluntary actions and involuntary reactions influenced by various internal and external factors.

Humanism perspective

1. Addressed perceived flaws in both psychoanalytic and behavioral approaches 

2. Focuses on people’s potential and their drive to be their best 

3. Has a more positive outlook on people than the behavior or psychoanalytic approaches

4. Emphasizes on a person’s positive qualities 

5. Emphasizes the capacity for human growth/reaching one’s potential 

6. Emphasizes the freedom to choose one’s destiny  

7. Self actualization

Self actualization

The psychological need to fulfill one’s fullest potential characterized by continuous personal growth, creativity, and self-fulfillment

Cognitive perspective

1. Studies how thinking and perception influence behavior  - How we direct our attention, Memory, Thinking. Problem solving, Decision making 

2. Cognition→ thinking/information processing

Biological perspective

Focuses on how genetics, the nervous system, hormones, and brain structures influence a person’s thinking and behavior 

Neuroscience: the study of the brain and nervous system

Is concerned with the biological causes of human thought and behavior 

Is interested in how biological treatments may improve certain conditions 

Evolutionary perspective

Began with charles darwin 

Emphasizes how evolution influences thinking and behavior 

Looks for aspects of human thought and behavior behavior that helps us and our genes survive over time

Focuses on humans as a species; does not focus on specific individuals 

Example: examines why many people are attracted to sugary and fatty doods

1. These foods are high in calories and helped our ancestors survive 

Sociocultural perspective

Emphasizes the impact of people’s culture, religion, ethnicity, gender, income level, and overall environment on a person’s thinking and behavior 

1. Compares behaviors across countries 

2. Compares behavior within ethnic and cultural groups

Clinical psychology

Psychologist who specializes in the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders 

Provides counseling and therapy does not provide medication 

Works in hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, and private practices 

Positive Psychology

The scientific study of human flourishing 

Goal is to discover and promote the strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities thrive 

Focuses on both individual and societal well-being

Developmental Psychology

Studies how people change and develop over their lifespan 

Cognitive and motor development, language acquisition, emotional development

Social Psychology

Studies how we think about, influence, and relate to other people 

Educational psychology

Researches how people learn and remember information 

Helps develop more effective curriculum, testing procedures, classroom structures, etc 

Does not focus on individual students like a school psychologist

Health Psychology

Examines how biological, social, and psychological factors influence health and illness.

Designs, conducts, or evaluates programs that help people live healthier lives (quitting smoking, improving sleep, managing pain)

Physiological/Biological psychology

Emphasizes that biological, psychological, and social forces all influence behavior 

No person or behavior can be explained by one perspective alone 

The approach that best helps us understand human thought and behavior

Forensic Psychology

Forensic psychology is the intersection of psychology and the legal system. It involves the application of psychological principles, theories, and research to legal matters, including criminal investigations, court proceedings, and correctional settings.

Experimental Psychology

using experiments to study human thought behavior \

Cognitive psychology

Studies the biological processes that enable cognition (thinking, perceiving, memory)

Psychometrics

Focuses on the construction of assessment tools, measurement instruments, and formal models that help study and observe human thoughts and behavior

Personality

is a set of enduring characteristics and patterns of behavior that differentiate individuals from each other.

Psychiatry

Medical doctor specializing in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness

Typically prescribes medication to treat mental illness 

Works in hospitals, clinics, rehabilitation centers, and private practices

Counseling psychology

Assists people with personal problems

Provides counseling/therapy 

Most commonly works in private practices or clinics 

Applied psychology

the use of psychological theories, research, and principles to solve practical, real-world problems in various settings like education, business, healthcare, and sports

Industrial-Organizational Psychology (I-O Psych)m

Uses psychological training in the workspace 

Helps companies select and train employees, boost morale and productivity, and implement systems

School psychology

Tests students for learning and emotional struggles 

Helps create individualized education plans for students with learning and emotional struggles 

Occasionally provides counseling but not often

Empiricism

the idea that knowledge comes from sensory experience and that science relies on observations and experimentation

Cultural norms

The shared, unwritten rules and expectations within a specific culture that guide behavior, dictate what is acceptable or inappropriate, and provide a framework for social interaction

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one’s own ethnic group or culture is superior to others, leading to the tendency to judge other cultures using the standards of one’s own

Nature v Nurture

Describes the ongoing debate about the relative roles of genetics and environment in shaping human behavior and development 

How much psychological traits and behaviors can be explained by genes and how much can be explained by experience 

Experimental

 a research method in which a researcher manipulates one or more factors to observe some effect on mental health processes

Case study

studying in depth an individual or group of people in hope of revealing things true of us all

Correlation

the extent to which 2 things vary together and how well one factor predicts the other 

Meta analysis

 the statistical combination of results from two or more separate studies

Hypothesis

Testable predictions

Theory

Explains behaviors or events by offering ideas that organize observations

Operational Definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study

Participants/subjects

Individuals who voluntarily take part in psychological studies by providing date through various means such as surveys, interviews, observations, or experimental tasks

Independent variable

Manipulated

Dependent variable

Measured

Experimental group

The group of people receiving the treatment

Control group

no treatment given

Extraneous/cofounding variables

An extraneous factor that can affect the dependent variable in an experimental in an experiment affecting the relationship between independent and dependent variable

Placebo effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone any affect on behavior by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is active

Random assignment

randoming assigning a person to experimental or the control group

Random sampling

a sample that fairly represents a population because each individual is represented

Positive correlation

two sets of scores increase or decrease together

Negative correlation

Two sets of scores relate inversely to one another

Correlation coefficient

Helps us figure out how closely two things vary

Third variable problem

the possibility that a correlation between two variables is not a direct cause and effect relatfionship but rather an unmeasured third variable which effects observed variables

Naturalistic observation

a non experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without controlling or manipulating

Self fulfilling prophecy

When a prediction or expectation, even if initialloy false, influences behavior in a way that the orginal prediction becomes true

Statistics

Is a branch of mathematics that psychologists use to organize and analyze data

Frequency distribution

Is a count of the number of scores that fall within each of a series of intervals

Descriptive statistics

Describes sets of data 

You might create a frequency distribution 

Frequency polygons or histograms

Mean

arithmetical average calculated by dividing a sum of values by the total number of cases

Median

is the point that divides a set of scores in half

Mode

Is the point at which the largest number of scores occurs

Negatively skewed distribution

If a group has a low outlier, the curve has a negative skew

Positively skewed distribution

If the group has one high score, the curve has a positive skew

Variability

Variation

Range

Distance from highest to lowest

Standard deviation

The variance of scores around the mean

The higher the variance or SD, the more spread out the distribution is

Normal curve of distribution (bell curve)

Knows the percentages of distributions across the curve

Mean, median, and mode are all the same

34, 14, 2 (on both sides)

Regression toward the mean

The statistical tendency for extreme scores on one measurement to be closer to the average on a subsequent measurement without intervention

Percentile score/rank

Indicates the percentage of a norm group that a specific score falls at or below 

For example if an individual scores 80th percentile, it means they performed better than 80% of the other test takers in the group

Scatter diagram/scatter plot

A diagram showing the association between two scores on two variables

Effect size

A data set that has two distinct peaks or modes, indication two different values that occur with the highest frequency

Bimodal distribution

A data set that has two distinct peaks or modes, indication two different calues that occur with the highest frequency

Inferential statistics

The purpose is to discover whether the finding can be applied to the larger population from which the sample was collected

Statistical significance

The degree to which a research outcome cannot be reasonably attributed to the operation of chance or random factors