Black History

restrictive covenants

Restrictive covenants were clauses in property deeds that prohibited the sale or occupancy of property to certain racial or ethnic groups, predominantly targeting African Americans. These covenants were widely used in the early to mid-20th century to enforce residential segregation. Although the Supreme Court deemed them unenforceable in 1948, their legacy contributed to enduring patterns of racial segregation in housing.

de facto segregation

De facto segregation refers to racial separation that occurs in practice, even if not mandated by law. This form of segregation often results from economic disparities, residential patterns, and social factors. Unlike de jure segregation, which is enforced by legislation, de facto segregation persists through societal norms and institutional practices.

A. Philip Randolph

A. Philip Randolph was a prominent labor leader and civil rights activist who founded the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in 1925, the first major African American labor union. He played a crucial role in advocating for the rights of Black workers and was instrumental in pushing for the desegregation of the armed forces. Randolph also helped organize the 1963 March on Washington, a pivotal event in the civil rights movement.

Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters

Established in 1925 under the leadership of A. Philip Randolph, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters was the first African American labor union to receive a charter from the American Federation of Labor. The union fought for better wages, working conditions, and respect for Black railway porters. Their efforts marked a significant step toward labor equality and civil rights for African Americans.

Second great migration

The Second Great Migration occurred between 1940 and 1970, during which over five million African Americans moved from the rural South to urban centers in the North, Midwest, and West. This migration was driven by the pursuit of better economic opportunities and escape from Jim Crow laws. The movement significantly reshaped the demographic and cultural landscape of American cities.

adam clayton powell jr.

Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. was a Baptist pastor and politician who represented Harlem in the U.S. House of Representatives from 1945 to 1971. As the first African American from New York elected to Congress, he was a vocal advocate for civil rights and social justice. Powell played a key role in the passage of significant social legislation during the 1960s.

Double V Campaign

The Double V Campaign was initiated during World War II by African Americans advocating for victory against fascism abroad and racial discrimination at home. The campaign highlighted the paradox of fighting for freedom overseas while being denied civil rights domestically. It galvanized Black communities to demand equal rights and laid the groundwork for the post-war civil rights movement.

Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)

Founded in 1942, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) was a pivotal civil rights organization that championed nonviolent protest to challenge segregation. CORE organized significant actions such as the Freedom Rides and participated in the March on Washington. Their efforts were instrumental in bringing national attention to civil rights issues.

brown v board of education

The 1954 Supreme Court decision in Brown v. Board of Education declared that racial segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. This landmark ruling overturned the "separate but equal" doctrine established by Plessy v. Ferguson. It served as a catalyst for the civil rights movement by challenging the legality of segregation.

little rock nine

In 1957, nine African American students, known as the Little Rock Nine, enrolled at the previously all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas. Their integration was met with intense resistance, prompting federal intervention to enforce desegregation. The event became a significant moment in the struggle for civil rights in education.

white citizens’ councils

Formed in the 1950s, White Citizens' Councils were white supremacist organizations that opposed racial integration and civil rights advancements. Unlike the Ku Klux Klan, they used economic and political means to intimidate and suppress African Americans and civil rights activists. Their influence was particularly strong in the Deep South during the civil rights era.

rolling segregation

"Rolling segregation" refers to the ongoing and shifting patterns of racial segregation, particularly in housing and education, that persist despite legal advancements. This term highlights how segregation can continue through systemic practices and policies, even without explicit laws enforcing it. It underscores the challenges in achieving true integration and equality.

jo ann robinson

Jo Ann Robinson was an educator and civil rights activist who played a crucial role in initiating the Montgomery Bus Boycott. As president of the Women's Political Council, she organized and distributed thousands of leaflets calling for the boycott after Rosa Parks' arrest. Her leadership was instrumental in the success of this pivotal protest.

e.d. nixon

E. D. Nixon was a civil rights leader and union organizer in Alabama who was instrumental in the Montgomery Bus Boycott. He served as a key figure in the NAACP and worked closely with Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr. Nixon's efforts helped lay the groundwork for the broader civil rights movement.

montgomery improvement association (MIA)

The Montgomery Improvement Association was established in 1955 to oversee the Montgomery Bus Boycott. Led by Martin Luther King Jr., the MIA coordinated the boycott and became a model for nonviolent protest. Its success propelled King into national prominence and energized the civil rights movement.

bayard rustin

Bayard Rustin was a key strategist and organizer in the civil rights movement, known for his commitment to nonviolence and civil disobedience. He was a chief organizer of the 1963 March on Washington. Despite facing discrimination for his sexuality, Rustin's contributions were vital to the movement's successes.

southern christian leadership conference (SCLCZ)

Founded in 1957, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference was a civil rights organization led by Martin Luther King Jr. The SCLC advocated for nonviolent protest to achieve civil rights goals. It played a central role in major campaigns, including the Birmingham Campaign and the March on Washington.

john lewis

John Lewis was a prominent civil rights leader and U.S. Congressman who dedicated his life to the fight for racial equality. As chairman of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), he was a key organizer of the March on Washington and led the Selma to Montgomery marches. Lewis's lifelong commitment to justice earned him national respect and recognition.

tougaloo college

Tougaloo College is a historically Black college in Mississippi that became a hub for civil rights activism during the 1960s. It provided a safe space for organizing and training activists. The college's involvement was instrumental in advancing civil rights efforts in the Deep South.

march on washington

The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom took place on August 28, 1963, drawing over 250,000 participants advocating for civil and economic rights. It was the setting for Martin Luther King Jr.'s iconic "I Have a Dream" speech.The march was pivotal in the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

diane nash

Diane Nash was a founding member of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and a leader in the Freedom Rides and Selma Voting Rights Movement. Her strategic planning and commitment to nonviolence were crucial to the success of these campaigns. Nash's activism significantly advanced the civil rights movement.

jim zwerg

Jim Zwerg was a white civil rights activist who participated in the Freedom Rides, challenging segregation in interstate bus travel. He endured severe beatings for his involvement, demonstrating solidarity with African American activists.

The civil rights movement--its origins, goals, strategies, and accomplishments

Origins:
The Civil Rights Movement formally gained traction in the mid-20th century, but its roots trace back to Reconstruction, the NAACP’s early 20th-century legal efforts, and resistance to Jim Crow laws. It was born out of centuries of systemic oppression and the ongoing fight for Black freedom, voting rights, and dignity.

Goals:
Core goals included ending segregation (especially in public education and transportation), securing voting rights, achieving economic equality, and ensuring full citizenship for Black Americans. Broader aims evolved to include fair housing, criminal justice reform, and cultural representation.

Strategies:
Tactics centered around nonviolent protest (inspired by Christian ethics and Gandhi), legal challenges (Brown v. Board), grassroots organizing (Montgomery Bus Boycott, Freedom Rides), and media-focused demonstrations (Selma, Birmingham). Groups like the NAACP, SCLC, SNCC, and CORE coordinated these efforts.

Accomplishments:
Major wins include:

• Brown v. Board of Education (1954) desegregating schools

• Civil Rights Act of 1964 ending legal segregation

• Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawing discriminatory voting practices

• Fair Housing Act of 1968
  Socially, the movement reshaped national consciousness and helped inspire other liberation movements (feminist, LGBTQ+, Chicano, etc.).

The future of the civil rights movement (Where should we go from here?)

Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.'s final book asked this very question. The unfinished business includes:

• Economic justice: Addressing racial wealth gaps, fair wages, and access to education

• Systemic reform: Ending mass incarceration, discriminatory policing, and healthcare disparities

• Representation: Expanding diverse voices in leadership, education, and media

• Reparations and truth-telling: Reckoning with historical injustices through policy and public acknowledgment
  The future of civil rights will require coalition-building across racial and class lines, and a move from just “legal equality” to substantive equity.

Inter-racial cooperation -- its advocates and skeptics

Advocates like Martin Luther King Jr., Bayard Rustin, and Diane Nash believed that a multiracial coalition was essential to achieving justice, rooted in the idea that freedom for one group depends on freedom for all. Many white allies (e.g., Viola Liuzzo, Jim Zwerg, Rabbi Abraham Heschel) risked their lives in support.

Skeptics, especially from the Black Power era (e.g., Malcolm X early on, Stokely Carmichael), warned that interracial cooperation often put white comfort ahead of Black liberation. They pointed to betrayals, white fragility, or shallow allyship that derailed progress.

Both views remain relevant today as we navigate coalition-building with awareness of power dynamics, performative activism, and true solidarity.

The relationship between African-American identities and other American identities (“twoness” issue)

W.E.B. Du Bois famously described Black identity as a “double consciousness”: being both African and American, but never fully accepted as either. This duality captures the tension between pride in African heritage and the desire for full American citizenship.

African Americans have shaped core aspects of American identity—through language, art, labor, music, and democracy itself—yet have often been excluded from its promises. Navigating this "twoness" has created resilience, cultural innovation (e.g., hip-hop, gospel, soul food), and a uniquely diasporic consciousness.

Today, this “twoness” also intersects with gender, class, and sexuality, adding more layers to the question of belonging.

America’s response to the issue of race -- “color-blind” or appreciative of “difference”?

The ideal of a “color-blind” society—judging people by the “content of their character”—has often been misused to ignore race and avoid accountability for structural racism. While well-intentioned, color-blindness can invisibilize the lived realities of marginalized people.

An appreciative view of difference acknowledges how race, culture, and history shape identity and inequality. It promotes cultural recognition and inclusion without flattening everyone into sameness.

The most just approach moves beyond both—toward anti-racism: actively working to dismantle racial hierarchies while valuing cultural richness and human dignity.

The role of Christianity in evaluating African-American history

Christianity has played a paradoxical role in Black history: both as a tool of oppression and a source of liberation.

White slaveholders weaponized Christianity to justify slavery, while Black communities reinterpreted the faith through Exodus narratives, liberation theology, and the person of Jesus as a suffering servant and freedom fighter.

The Black Church became a hub of social activism, education, and resistance—from abolition through the civil rights movement. Figures like MLK and Fannie Lou Hamer grounded their justice work in Christian ethics.

Today, Christianity continues to shape moral visions of justice in Black communities, even as some challenge its colonial and patriarchal legacies through womanist, queer, and liberation theologies.