AP Psych Unit 5 Pt.1 - Intelligence

Idk if this is actually unit 4 this is what our teacher taught us

Intelligence

Intelligence

• the cognitive ability to think, reason, and act purposefully & effectively as to manipulate one’s environment and meet goals in a rational manner

• ability to learn from experiences

• ability to apply knowledge to new sitations

• ability to solve problems

• ability to adapt / respond

Biological mechanisms of intelligence

• brain anatomy

  • cerebral cortex, frontal lobe, cerebrum, corpus callosum, both hemispheres

• neurology

  • neural plasticity

  • number of synaptic connections

• genetics & heredity

  • characteristics are a product of one’s DNA

Francis Galton

• came up with the idea of eugenics

Eugenics

attempts to biologically engineer the human gene pool by breeding superior people

Charles Spearman

• came up with the theory of general intelligence (g)

• intelligence is composed of a single, cognitive ability

General intelligence (g)

• statistical factor analysis that indicates an individual’s overall mental capacity is based upon a singular cognitive skill set

• level of academic intellect typically transcends across multiple curricular disciplines

• led to creation of standardized tests

Louis Thurston

• stated intelligence is a list of “primary mental abilities” → human intelligence consists of 7 different abilities (NSAWVIP)

• his theories led to the creation of modern intelligence tests

Primary mental abilities

1. Numerical abilities

2. Spatial relations

3. Associative memory

4. Word vocabulary

5. Verbal comprehension

6. Inductive reasoning

7. Perceptual processing speed

Raymond Cattell

• he revised Spearman’s theory of general intelligence

• described g (general intelligence) as being composed of 2 factors

Crystallized intelligence (g_c)

knowledge acquired and solidified through lifelong learning experiences; “book smarts”

Fluid intelligence (g_f)

flexibility of reasoning abilities, speed & efficiency of information processing; “street smarts”

Howard Gardner

• came up with the “Theory of Multiple Intelligences”

• his theories revolutionized the modern education system

Theory of multiple intelligences

• described intelligence as unique individual learning abilities and develop according to cultural influences

• described 8 learning abilities (LLMBSNII)

  1. logical / mathematical

  2. linguistic (reading, writing, speech)

  3. musical

  4. bodily (kinesthetic)

  5. spatial relations

  6. naturalistic

  7. interpersonal

  8. intrapersonal

Interpersonal

social skills & communication

Intrapersonal

self perception & metacognition

Robert Sternberg

• came up with the “Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence”

Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligence

• intelligence is displayed through practical problem solving

• focuses on the process of problem solving, not the final product

• 3 abilities

  1. Analytical intelligence

  2. Practical intelligence

  3. Creative intelligence

• People with high intelligence effectively synthesize all three forms

Purposes / Clinical applications for intelligence testing

• used to assess cognitive development for psychological / scientific research

• used as diagnostic indicators to identify potential learning disabilities or gifted learners

• used forensically to evaluate legal competency

Achievement test

measures information learned / retained over time

Aptitude test

measures specific skills, talents, and natural abilities

Intelligence test

measurement of one’s ability to learn based upon multiple cognitive skills and problem solving abilities

Alfred Binet

he collaborated with Theodore Simon to create the Binet-Simon Intelligence Test

Binet-Simon Intelligence Test

• foundation of the modern intelligence assessment

• first test to measure multiple cognitive abilities that was not a measurement of aptitude or achievement

• the scoring was flawed because this test was originally made for children

• not the first IQ test

Lewis Terman

• developmental psychologist

• adjusted Binet’s test and revised the scoring calculation to identify cognitive disabilities in children

• created the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

• first clinically used intelligence test

• standardized a classification system to label various degrees of intellectual disabilities in children

• calculated the intelligence quotient (iq) formula

  • score of 100 (mean) = average human intelligence

Stanford-Binet IQ calculation

IQ = (mental age / chronical age) × 100

Wechsler Test of Intelligence

• most commonly used series of IQ tests

• considered the clinical standard for intelligence measurement

  • WAIS-III → adults

  • WISC-IV → children

• instead of comparing test scores to one’s age, these tests are normally distributed according to statistical averages

Standard deviation

• measures how close the numbers within the dataset are in relation to the mean

Wechsler IQ Bell Curve ranges

• 85-115 → 68% of the population

• 70-130 → 95% of the population

Genius

Wechsler IQ score of 145 - 200 (0.1%)

Gifted

Wechsler IQ score of 130 - 145 (2%)

Above Average

Wechsler IQ score of 115 - 130 (14%)

Below Average

Wechsler IQ score of 70 - 85 (14%)

Intellectually Disabled

Wechsler IQ score of 55 - 70 (2%)

Profoundly Mentally Disabled

Wechsler IQ score of 0 - 55 (0.1%)

Intellectual disabilities

• psychometrically defined by IQ scores < 70

• 85% of the intellectually disabled population is considered mild

Savants

people with cognitive deficiencies yet are gifted in specific areas such as math, memory, music, art, etc.

Causes of intellectual disabilities

• genetics (down syndrome, PKU)

• prenatal teratogens (birth defects, FAS)

• physical brain injuries

• environmental factors (neglect, language deprivation)

Cognition

• a system of multiple mental processes that allow for human introspection and evaluation of thought

  • perception

  • memory / learning

  • problem solving / decisions

  • language

  • conceptualization

Conceptualization

• developmental classifications for a collective group of objects, stimuli, etc. that share similar characteristics

• identifying / placing stimuli into schemas

Schema

• mental categories based upon cognitive similarities

• constantly evolve & redefine as mind develops

Assimilation

• inclusion of a stimulus into an existing schema

• fitting in when similarities > differences

Accommodation

• mental adjustments made when the differences > similarities

• 3 ways

  1. redefine parameters of the schema

  2. place new item into a different schema

  3. create new schema

Natural concepts

understanding the characteristics that define the schema and representing it with a prototype

Prototype

model examples that contain all essential features / characteristics of the schema by which new stimuli are compared to

Artificial concepts

defining the characteristics of the prototype & comparing new stimuli not to the model example but to a defined list of it’s features

• if a majority of the characteristics of the mental checklist are in common, new stimuli can be assimilated

Hierarchical concepts

prioritizing metal checklists into a ranked order of the most important features

Step 1 of problem solving

Preparation

• often skipped (why humans aren’t the best problem solvers)

• understanding the situation / problem

• identify & familiarize yourself with relevant data & discard irrelevant information

• explicitly define the goal

Step 2 of problem solving

Production

• developing hypotheses and producing solutions

Algorithms

step-by-step procedures that if properly used will always produce a correct solution

Heuristics

“short cut” strategies; typically algorithms modified through experience; requires less time but may be prone to error

Step 3 of problem solving

Evaluation

• final analysis of solutions

• does the solution answer the questions?

• Is the solution correct in all cases / scenarios?

Mental set

tendency for previous successful experiences to become reliant and complacent; failure to learn new / alternative strategies

Functional fixedness

general inabilities to recognize alternative uses for manufactured objects other than the designer’s intended purpose

Anchoring bias

tendency for people to base decisions, attitudes, and opinions solely upon the first information that is presented to them

Confirmation bias

selectively picking / choosing information and data that supports your preconceived opinions and ignoring information that contradicts your beliefs

Belief perseverance

tendency to cling to beliefs and positions despite new information that firmly discredits and contradicts your opinions; inability / unwillingness to admit mistakes

Selective perception bias (self-serving bias)

our perceptions of reality are based upon our self motivated interests / experiences; reality blinded by emotion / personal point of view

Dunning-Kruger Effect

tendency for people with below level abilities to inaccurately exaggerate their own competence and to assume superior intelligence

Imposter Syndrome

self perceived doubt in one’s abilities making them believe they are not as qualified, skilled, or talented as others

Hindsight bias

tendency to reevaluate and unpredictable event after time has passed and information is made available that was not originally known

Framing / wording effect

tendency to influence or manipulate our thoughts and perceptions based upon how the information is presented

Availability Heuristic ★

tendency to assume or exaggerate the likelihood of events based upon the frequency and availability of information; biases based upon familiarity

Representative Heuristic ★

tendency to make judgements and evaluations based upon conceptual schemas with characteristics that draw upon generalizations; based upon stereotypes

Analytical Intelligence

ability to evaluate situations and apply knowledge

Practical Intelligence

intelligence to perform everyday tasks

Creative Intelligence

ability to adjust in response to new, changing situations

3 elements of creative intelligence

• Originality

• Fluency

• Flexibility

Originality

ingenuity to create unique ways to solve problems

Fluency

ability to produce multiple correct solutions to a problem

Flexibility

ability to interchange various methods of problem solving and make judgements when circumstances dictate

Divergent thinking

problems intended to have multiple solutions; brain storming

Convergent thinking

multivariable problems that direct thinking to one correct solution; conventional thinking

Heritability

the portion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes

Epigenetics

studies part of the dynamic biology of genetics & experience

Growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed

Fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable even with effort

Stereotype threat

a self-conforming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype

Factor analysis

a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items on a test used to identify different dimentions of performance

Cattel-Horn-Carrol Theory

the theory that our intelligence is based on g as well as specific abilities (g_c, g_f)

Grit

passion or perseverance in pursuit of long term goals

Emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance; the level or performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age to chronological age multiplied by 100

Standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group

Normal curve

the bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical / psychological attributes

Flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results

Validity

the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it’s supposed to

Content Validity

the extent to which a test samples the behavior that is of interest

Construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait

Predictive validity

the success that a test predicts the behavior that it is designed to predict

Executive functions

cognitive skills that work together, enabling us to generate, organize, plan, and implement goal-directed behavior

Insight

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct

Nudging

framing choices in a way that encourages people to make beneficial decisions

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

Language

our agreed upon systems of spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

• allows for sophisticated exchange of thought

• promotes social identity and cultural unity

• foundation of human cognitive development

• allows for introspection

Phoneme

the smallest distinctive sound unit (in language)

Morpheme

the smallest unit that carries meaning (in language)