AP Psychology- Unit 3 (Development and Learning)

Zone of Proximal Development

range of tasks that a learner can perform with the guidance of a more knowledgeable peer, but not yet independently

(Lev Vygotsky)

Morphemes

• smallest meaningful unit of language

• basic element that conveys meaning withing a word

• ex: prefix/suffix

Scaffolding

(as it pertains to Vygotsky)

temporary support provided by a more knowledgeable person to a learner until they can complete the task on their own

Gross-Motor Skills

skills that depend on development of the large muscles

ex: jumping, running, throwing

Autonomy

independence that includes personal responsibility and decision making

Growth

physical changes in size, such as gains in height and weight and an increase in physical strength and coordination

Development

gradual increase in skills and abilities that occurs over a lifetime and encompasses physical, cognitive, and social changes

Developmental Delay

lag in a particular aspect of development (in a child)

Sensorimotor

• 1st stage of Jean Piaget’s development theory

• birth - 2 years

• infants learn about their senses

• develop object permanence

Preoperational

• 2nd stage of Jean Piaget’s development theory

• between 2-7

• begin using symbols and language

• struggle with concrete logic and understanding others' viewpoints.

Concrete Operational

• 3rd stage of Jean Piaget’s development theory

• between 7-11

• can perform logical operations on concrete, tangible objects

• understand conservation

• struggle with abstract concepts

Formal Operational

• 4th (final) stage of Jean Piaget’s development theory

• around 11-12

• think abstractly, logically, and systematically

• can solve complex problems using abstract reasoning and logical deduction

Jean Piaget’s Development Stages

• Sensorimotor

• Preoperational

• Concrete Operational

• Formal Operational

Identity Moratorium

• an individual is actively exploring different options and identities without making a firm commitment to any one path

• often seen in adolescence, where individuals try various roles and beliefs before settling on a stable identity

Identity Achievement

an individual has explored various options and made a commitment to their values, beliefs, and goals

Identity Diffusion

where a person lacks a strong sense of self and isn’t actively working to develop one

Identity Foreclosure

• an individual commits to an identity without exploring other options

• accepting values or roles handed down by others, such as, parents or peers

Classical Conditioning

theory that behaviors can be associated with responses through repeated pairings of stimuli, leading to learned reactions.

Fine-Motor Skills

skill that depends on the development of small muscles

ex: coloring, drawing, writing, cutting with scissors

Operant Conditioning

• tendency of people to repeat behaviors that have a positive result and avoid those that lead to negative consequences

• this learning process involves reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior

Vicarious Conditioning

learning through observing other people’s responses to an environmental stimulus that is most noticeable to the observer

Social Learning Theory

learning that takes place through an observational process that emphasizes the importance of social influences and modeling in acquiring new behaviors

Continuous Development

theory that says development is a gradual, continuous process with no distinct stages

Primary Sex Characteristics

biological features directly involved in reproduction

ex: ovaries/testes

sex organs themselves

Secondary Sex Characteristics

physical traits not directly related to reproduction

ex: facial hair/breast development

Menarche

• female’s first menstrual period, signaling the onset of puberty and the fertility potential

• key transition from childhood to adolescence

Spermache

• the first time a male experiences ejaculation

• male equivalent of menarche

Mental Symbols

• internal cognitive representations, like images, words, or concepts

• allow individuals to process and understand information about the world around them

Theory of Mind

cognitive ability to understand that other people have their own thoughts, beliefs, desires, and intentions

Critical Periods

• organism is most sensitive to environmental influences/stimuli

• could result in irreversible changes to the brain

Sensitive Periods

offers a broader window for experience to shape neural activity

Discontinuous Development

theory that says development occurs in a series of distinct stages and that each stage involves qualitative differences in behavior and thinking.

Crystallized Intelligence

• ability to use previously learned knowledge and experience to solve problems

• “book smarts”

Teratogens

substances that damage the process of fetal development (tobacco and alcohol)

Fluid Intelligence

• ability to solve new problems and reason abstractedly in novel situations

• capacity to think flexibly and logically without relying heavily on previously learned knowledge

• “street smarts”

Ecological Systems Theory

framework that explains how a person’s development is influenced by various interconnected environmental systems

Ecological Systems

• Microsystem (immediate family and friends)

• Mesosystem (interactions between family and friends)

• Exosystem (wider societal influences)

• Macrosystem (cultural values)

• Chronosystem (time-related factors)

Object Permanence

• understanding that an object continues to exist even when it cannot be seen or directly perceived

• developed by Jean Piaget

• is fundamental in cognitive development during the Sensorimotor stage

Phonemes

smallest unit of sound in a spoken language

ex: “p” sound in “pat” or “b” sound in “bat”

Semantics

the study of meaning in language, focusing on how words, phrases, and sentences convey meaning and how context affects interpretation

Reinforcement Schedules

rules that control the delivery of reinforcement

• fixed interval

• variable interval

• fixed ratio

• variable ratio

Secondary Reinforcers

a stimulus that reinforces a behavior after it has been associated with a primary reinforcer

Primary Reinforcers

a stimulus that leads to some type of natural or automatic response

• unconditioned stimulus

Reinforcements

• Positive Reinforcement: gives something they like (candy/praise)

• Positive Punishment: gives something they don’t like (chores)

• Negative Reinforcement: takes away something they don’t like (lessen homework)

• Negative Punishment: takes away something they do like (take away phone)

Counterconditioning

conditioning an undesirable response or behavior with a more desirable one

ex: fear of public speaking → feeling rewarded after public speaking

Classical Conditioning

• learning through association

• people/animals repeatedly exposed to 2+ stimuli and learn to associate the two

• they learn to exhibit a new learned response when in the presence of the stimuli

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

potentially traumatic events that occur before a child reaches 18

• Abuse (physical + mental)

• Neglect (physical + mental)

• Household Dysfunction (mental illness, substance abuse)

Social Clock

culturally preferred timing of significant life events like marriage, parenthood, and retirement

Temperament

• an individual’s characteristic level of emotional excitability or intensity

• foundational aspect of personality that influences how a person reacts to stimuli and situations

Attachment Styles

• Secure

• Insecure:

  • Avoidant

  • Anxious

  • Disorganized

Behaviorism

theory based on the belief that an individual’s behavior is determined by forces in the environment that are beyond their control

Asynchronous

development rates uneven in physical, emotional (SEL), and cognitive development

Associative Learning

a learning principle that states that ideas and experiences reinforce each other and can be mentally linked to one another

Biological Preparedness

the idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses

Behavioral Perspective

explains behavior through conditioning

ex: classical conditioning/operant conditioning

Taste Aversion

a learned response to eating spoiled or toxic food or a food you associate with illness

ex: not liking tacos after throwing them up

Parenting Styles

• Authoritarian: high expectations but low emotional support

• Authoritative: high expectations and emotional support

• Permissive: low expectations but high emotional support

  • Neglectful Permissive: low expectations and low emotional support

Syntax

set of rules that govern how words are combined to for grammatically correct sentences within a language

Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory Stages

• Trust vs Mistrust (infant)

• Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt (toddler)

• Initiative vs Guilt (pre-schooler)

• Industry vs Inferiority (school-age)

• Identity vs Role Confusion (adolescent)

• Intimacy vs Isolation (young adult)

• Generativity vs Stagnation (middle age)

• Ego Integrity vs Despair (older adult)