gov girl 2

Concurrent Powers

AKA: shared powers

Powers shared by both the federal and state governments (e.g., taxing, building roads, establishing courts).

Enumerated Powers

AKA Expressed Powers

Powers specifically listed in the Constitution for the federal government (e.g., coining money, declaring war, regulating interstate commerce).

Reserved Powers

The powers that the Constitution does not give to the federal government and does not deny to the states—so they are “reserved” for the states. This is outlined in the 10th Amendment.

Examples include:

• Running elections

• Establishing local governments

• Regulating intrastate commerce (within the state)

• Setting up public schools

• Marriage and divorce laws

Implied Powers

Powers not explicitly written in the Constitution but allowed under the Necessary and Proper Clause (Article I, Section 8) to help Congress carry out its expressed powers.

Natural Rights

Rights people are born with (life, liberty, property—John Locke’s idea).

Popular Sovereignty

The idea that power comes from the people (i.e., government exists because people consent to it).

Social Contract (theory)

An agreement where people give up some freedom in exchange for government protection of rights.

Federalist 51

Focused more on checks and balances and separation of powers. Madison argued that dividing power among branches keeps any one branch from becoming too strong.

Federalist No. 10

Warned about the danger of factions (especially majority factions) and argued that a large republic would best control them.

Federalist 78

Defended the judiciary, saying it’s the least dangerous branch because it lacks the power of the purse (money) and the sword (military). Its power is limited to judgment. However, this was not saying the branch was weak/unimportant.

Brutus 1

Argued that the Necessary and Proper Clause and Supremacy Clause would give the federal government too much power and destroy state authority and sovereignty. Anti-Federalist paper.

Federalist 70

He argued for a single, energetic executive (aka one strong president) because:

• It ensures accountability—you know who to blame or praise.

• It allows for quick, decisive action, especially in crises.

• It helps protect against foreign attacks and ensure steady administration of laws.

• Multiple executives would cause confusion, conflict, and weakness.

Before the constitution

The Constitution was ratified before the Bill of Rights, but many states only agreed to ratify with the promise that a Bill of Rights would be added afterward to protect individual freedoms.

Under the Articles of Confederation, there was only one branch of government:

a unicameral (one-house) Congress.

There was no executive branch (no president) and no judicial branch (no national courts). Congress had very limited powers—it couldn’t tax, regulate trade, or enforce laws. This made the federal government weak and ineffective, which is why the Constitution was eventually written to create a stronger national structure.

What was Brutus 1 worried about

Brutus was very worried about state sovereignty.

In Brutus No. 1, he argued that the Constitution gave too much power to the federal government, especially because of:

• The Necessary and Proper Clause

• The Supremacy Clause

He believed these clauses would let the federal government override state laws and make states basically powerless in the long run. Brutus feared that:

• State sovereignty would be destroyed,

• The federal government would become too centralized and distant from the people, and

• A large republic couldn’t protect individual liberty like small, local governments could.

state sovereignty

means that individual U.S. states have the power to govern themselves in certain areas, without interference from the federal government.

Under the Constitution (especially the 10th Amendment), powers not given to the federal government are reserved to the states. This includes things like:

• Setting education policy

• Managing local law enforcement

• Holding elections

• Regulating intrastate commerce

State sovereignty was much stronger under the Articles of Confederation, but the Constitution shifted more power to the federal government—this is what Brutus No. 1 worried about.

Limited Government

means that the government’s power is restricted by law, usually through a constitution.

In the U.S., this means:

• The government can only do what the Constitution allows.

• Officials must follow the law (rule of law).

• Individual rights are protected (like in the Bill of Rights).

• There are checks and balances to keep any branch from gaining too much power.

It’s a core principle meant to prevent tyranny and protect freedom.

Why was the federal government under the articles only one branch: Unicameral Congress?

The Articles of Confederation had a unicameral (one-house) Congress because the founders were afraid of a strong central government—especially after just fighting the British monarchy.

Here’s why they chose a single Congress:

• Simplicity: A one-branch system was easy to manage for a new nation.

• State equality: Each state got one vote, no matter its size, which kept small states happy.

• Fear of tyranny: They didn’t want a strong executive or powerful legislature that could turn into another king or Parliament.

• Focus on state sovereignty: The states saw themselves as independent countries loosely connected in a “firm league of friendship.”

But… this structure was too weak—Congress couldn’t tax, raise an army, or enforce laws—which is why the Constitution replaced it.

What is fiscal policy?

A: refers to government actions related to taxing and spending. It is controlled by Congress and the President to influence the economy.

What is Keynesian economics?

supports increased government spending and/or lower taxes to stimulate demand in the economy during recessions. It is associated with liberal/Democratic policies.

• Good for stimulating demand in a slow economy (recession).

• Main Tool: Increase government spending (on programs, infrastructure, aid, etc.) for greater demand

• Sometimes also cut taxes—but mainly for middle/lower classes to boost consumer demand

• Goal: Stimulate the economy during a recession or slowdown

What is monetary policy?

A: the management of the economy by controlling the money supply and interest rates. It is controlled by the Federal Reserve (The Fed), not Congress.

How does the Federal Reserve use monetary policy to control inflation?

A: The Fed raises interest rates to slow borrowing and spending, which helps reduce inflation.

What is supply-side economics?

A: focuses on lowering taxes and reducing regulations to encourage business investment and production. It is associated with conservative/Republican policies.

• Good for increasing supply and controlling inflation or boosting long-term economic growth.

• Main Tool: Cut taxes, especially for businesses (keep more money to boost supply) and the wealthy

• Also often includes reducing government regulations

• Goal: Encourage production, investment, and long-term economic growth

How does supply-side economics aim to stimulate the economy?

A: By lowering taxes for businesses and the wealthy to boost production and create more jobs, leading to economic growth.

What is the key difference between Keynesian economics and supply-side economics?

A: Keynesian economics focuses on increasing demand (through government spending and tax cuts for consumers), while supply-side economics focuses on increasing supply (through tax cuts for producers and businesses).

Lobbying is of who

The main branch that interest groups focus on is the legislative branch—especially Congress—because that’s where laws are made. And you’re right: interest groups often target the House of Representatives a lot because:

• House members serve 2-year terms, so they’re constantly campaigning and need funding and public support more often.

• They’re considered “closer to the people”, so interest groups can often pressure them using constituent opinion or media.

• They may be seen as more responsive—or susceptible—to lobbying, since they rely more heavily on quick support and donations.

But remember: while lobbying the House is very common, big interest groups will always lobby both the House and Senate, depending on where a bill is being discussed or stalled.

PACs

• • Can donate directly to candidates but have strict contribution limits (e.g., $5,000 per candidate per election).

  • Must disclose donors.

Super PACs

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  • Cannot donate directly to candidates or coordinate with campaigns.

  • Can spend unlimited amounts independently to support or oppose candidates (e.g., ads).

  • Must also disclose donors but are sometimes funded by groups that don’t (like 501(c)(4)s).

• Straight-Ticket Voting

• Voting for one party’s candidates across the whole ballot (e.g., all Democrat or all Republican).

Split-Ticket Voting

• Voting for different parties in different races (e.g., Democrat for president, Republican for senator).
  

  • More common when voters care about individuals over parties.

Party Coalition

• A party coalition is the group of demographics, interest groups, and voters that generally support a political party.
  

  • Example: FDR’s New Deal coalition included labor unions, African Americans, and the working class.

Candidate-Centered Campaign

• Focus is on the candidate’s personality, image, and message, rather than the party.
  

  • Increased with the rise of social media, televised debates, and direct communication.

  • Weakens party influence.

Party Realignment

• A long-term shift in party loyalty by a large group of voters, often during or after a critical election.
  

  • Example: During the Great Depression, many African Americans shifted to the Democratic Party.

  • Often leads to a new party coalition.

• A political party wins for years in presidential elections back to back:

→ A period when one political party wins multiple presidential elections in a row and dominates politics.

• → Party Era or Party Dominance
  (Example: Republican dominance in the 1980s)

• There’s a shift in who’s in each party (like the Great Depression):

→ A long-term shift in voter loyalty, often changing the party coalition (e.g., during the Great Depression).

Party Realignment

• Someone changes political parties:

• Party Dealignment (if they leave a party entirely and move away from both, becoming more independent) or Party Switching (if they move from one to another)
  

  • Sometimes also called “partisan conversion”.

Informal Powers of the President

do states have informal powers too

→ States have reserved powers under the 10th Amendment, but “informal powers” as a term is mostly used to describe presidential authority.

formal vs informal powers

Formal = specifically listed in the Constitution; Informal = developed through practice, tradition, or interpretation.

why doesn’t the tenth amendment stop informal powers

Because the Constitution gives the president broad, vague powers in Article II, like “executive power” and “faithfully execute the laws.”

The Constitution is vague in places, and presidents need flexibility to respond to modern challenges and govern effectively.

examples of informal powers

→ Executive orders: Directives issued by the president to manage the federal government without needing congressional approval.