Final Exam A&P1 review

What is the main function of the epidermis?

Presents a protective barrier, prevents water loss, and shields from UV damage

List the five layers of the epidermis from superficial to deep

Pnuemonic: Can Lemurs Get Some Bamboo? → Stratum Corneum, Lucidum, Granulosum, Spinosum, Basale

What is the function of the stratum corneum?

Provides a tough, protective layer of dead keratinized cells

What is the function of the stratum lucidum?

Only in thick skin; provides additional protection and clarity

What is the function of the stratum granulosum?

Synthesizes keratin and forms a water barrier

What is the function of the stratum spinosum?

Provides strength and flexibility; contains desmosomes

What is the function of the stratum basale?

Produces new keratinocytes; contains melanocytes and Merkel cells

What is the dermis composed of?

Connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve endings, sweat & oil glands, hair follicles

What is the function of the papillary layer of the dermis?

Supports and nourishes the epidermis; contains dermal papillae

What is the function of the reticular layer of the dermis?

Provides strength, elasticity, and houses accessory structures

What is the hypodermis composed of?

Subcutaneous tissue containing adipose and connective tissue

What are the functions of sebaceous glands?

Secrete sebum to lubricate and protect the skin and hair

What are the functions of sweat glands?

Thermoregulation and excretion of wastes

What is the arrector pili muscle?

Small muscle attached to hair follicle; contracts to cause goosebumps

How does the skin regulate temperature?

Through sweating, blood vessel dilation/constriction, and insulation by fat/hair

What are the main parts of a long bone?

Epiphysis, Metaphysis, Diaphysis, Marrow Cavity, Periosteum, Endosteum

What is the difference between compact and spongy bone?

Compact: dense, structural support; Spongy: porous, lightweight, houses marrow

What is an osteon?

The structural unit of compact bone; concentric lamellae surrounding a central canal

What are lamellae?

Rings of calcified matrix in an osteon

What are canaliculi?

Small channels connecting lacunae for nutrient/waste exchange

What is a central canal?

Central channel of osteon containing blood vessels and nerves

What is a perforating canal?

Connects blood vessels and nerves from periosteum to central canals

What are lacunae?

Small cavities that house osteocytes

What are trabeculae?

Struts of spongy bone providing structural support

Name the four types of osseous cells

Osteoblast, Osteocyte, Osteoclast, Osteoprogenitor

What is the function of osteoblasts?

Build bone by secreting matrix and initiating calcification

What is the function of osteocytes?

Maintain bone tissue and matrix

What is the function of osteoclasts?

Break down bone tissue for remodeling and calcium release

What is the function of osteoprogenitor cells?

Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts

What is intramembranous ossification?

Bone formation directly from mesenchymal tissue (flat bones)

What is endochondral ossification?

Bone formation from a cartilage template (long bones)

What is bone remodeling influenced by?

Stress, aging, osteoporosis, and exercise

What is the mnemonic to remember cranial bones?

FOPEST → Frontal, Occipital, Parietal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Temporal

Name a key feature of the frontal bone

Coronal suture, supraorbital foramen, frontal sinus

Name a key feature of the parietal bone

Sagittal suture, squamous suture

Name a key feature of the occipital bone

Foramen magnum, occipital condyles, lambdoidal suture

Name a key feature of the temporal bone

Mastoid process, zygomatic process, styloid process, external auditory meatus, jugular foramen, carotid canal

Name a key feature of the sphenoid bone

Sella turcica, hypophyseal fossa, greater wing, sphenoidal sinus

Name a key feature of the ethmoid bone

Crista galli, cribiform plate, perpendicular plate, ethmoid sinuses

Name a key feature of the maxilla

Palatine process, maxillary sinuses

Name a key feature of the mandible

Mandibular condyle, coronoid process, body, ramus, angle

Name a key feature of the zygomatic bone

Zygomatic arch

Name a key feature of the lacrimal bone

Lacrimal fossa

Name a key feature of the nasal bone

Supports bridge of nose

Name a feature of the palatine bone

Houses part of hard palate

Name a feature of the vomer bone

Forms inferior part of nasal septum

What is a key feature of the atlas (C1)?

Supports skull, no body, large vertebral foramen

What is a key feature of the axis (C2)?

Dens (odontoid process) for rotation

What is a feature of cervical vertebrae

Small body, transverse foramina

What is a feature of thoracic vertebrae

Articulate with ribs, spinous processes point inferiorly

What is a feature of lumbar vertebrae

Large body, blunt spinous processes

What is the sacrum?

Fused vertebrae forming the posterior pelvic wall

What is the coccyx?

Tailbone; fused vertebrae

Name the types of ribs

True (1–7), False (8–12), Floating (11–12)

Name the parts of the sternum

Manubrium, body, xiphoid process

What is the hyoid bone?

Floating bone in neck that supports tongue

What are the two parts of the pectoral girdle

Clavicle and scapula

Name key landmarks of the clavicle

Sternal end, acromial end

Name key landmarks of the scapula

Acromion, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, spine, medial & lateral borders, superior & inferior angles

What are the major landmarks of the humerus

Head, greater & lesser tubercles, epicondyles, olecranon fossa, deltoid tuberosity, capitulum, trochlea

What are the major landmarks of the radius

Head, radial tuberosity, styloid process

What are the major landmarks of the ulna

Head, olecranon process, trochlear notch, styloid process

Name the carpals mnemonic

Some Lovers Try Positions That They Can’t Handle → Scaphoid, Lunate, Triquetrum, Pisiform, Trapezium, Trapezoid, Capitate, Hamate

Name the metacarpals

Numbered 1–5 lateral to medial

Name the phalanges

Proximal, middle/intermediate, distal; thumb = pollex (no middle)

What are key features of the pelvic girdle

Acetabulum, iliac crest, anterior/posterior superior/inferior iliac spines, sacroiliac joint, greater sciatic notch, ischial tuberosity, obturator foramen, pubic rami

Name key landmarks of the femur

Head, neck, greater & lesser trochanters, medial & lateral condyles, linea aspera

Name key landmarks of the tibia

Tibial tuberosity, medial malleolus, medial & lateral condyles

Name key landmarks of the fibula

Head, lateral malleolus

Name key tarsals mnemonic

The Circus Needs More Interesting Little Clowns → Talus, Calcaneus, Navicular, Medial cuneiform, Intermediate cuneiform, Lateral cuneiform, Cuboid

Name the metatarsals

Numbered 1–5 medial to lateral

Name the phalanges of the toes

Proximal, intermediate, distal; big toe = hallux (no intermediate)

What are the movements allowed by a synovial joint?

Gliding, Flexion, Extension, Hyperextension, Abduction, Adduction, Circumduction, Rotation, Pronation, Supination, Inversion, Eversion, Dorsiflexion, Plantarflexion, Protraction, Retraction, Elevation, Depression, Opposition

What is cartilage in a synovial joint?

Covers bone surfaces to reduce friction and absorb shock

What are tendons?

Connect muscle to bone, provide movement and stability

What are ligaments?

Connect bone to bone, stabilize joint

What is the joint capsule?

Encloses the joint, lined by synovial membrane

What is synovial fluid?

Lubricates joints, nourishes articular cartilage

What are bursae?

Fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between tissues

What is the mnemonic for shoulder rotator cuff muscles?

SITS → Supraspinatus, Infraspinatus, Teres Minor, Subscapularis

Name the key movements of the shoulder

Flexion, Extension, Abduction, Adduction, Circumduction, Rotation

Name the key movements of the elbow

Flexion, Extension, Pronation, Supination

Name the key movements of the hip

Flexion, Extension, Abduction, Adduction, Circumduction, Rotation

Name the key movements of the knee

Flexion, Extension

What is a muscle belly?

Main contractile portion of a muscle

What is a fascicle?

A bundle of muscle fibers

What is epimysium?

Connective tissue surrounding entire muscle

What is perimysium?

Connective tissue surrounding fascicles

What is endomysium?

Connective tissue surrounding individual muscle fibers

What is a myofibril?

Contractile element within a muscle fiber

What is a sarcomere?

Functional unit of muscle contraction

What are thin filaments composed of?

Actin, Tropomyosin, Troponin

What are thick filaments composed of?

Myosin, myosin heads

What is the zone of overlap?

Region where thick and thin filaments overlap, site of force generation

What is a neuromuscular junction?

Site where motor neuron communicates with muscle fiber

What happens at the neuromuscular junction?

Motor neuron releases acetylcholine → depolarizes muscle fiber → triggers contraction

What is excitation-contraction coupling?

Sequence of events where action potential leads to muscle contraction

What is the sliding filament theory?

Myosin heads pull actin filaments toward center of sarcomere shortening muscle

Name types of muscle contractions

Twitch, Treppe, Wave summation, Tetany (Incomplete & Complete), Isotonic (Concentric & Eccentric), Isometric

What is a motor unit?

A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates