BIOL251 Final Exam Review

anatomy

study of structure

physiology

study of how body parts function

level of structural organization

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organismal

11 systems of the human body

integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive

integumentary components

skin, hair, nails

integumentary functions

protection, body temperature regulation, insulation

skeletal components

bones, joints, cartilage

skeletal functions

structure, support, body movements

muscular components

skeletal muscle tissue

muscular functions

movements, produces heat, maintains posture

nervous components

brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs (eyes and ears)

nervous functions

action potentials, regulates body activities, detects changes in internal and external

endocrine components

hormone producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituary gland, ovaries, etc.)

endocrine functions

releasing hormones (chemical messengers)

cardiovascular components

blood, heart, blood vessels

cardiovascular functions

pumping blood, helps regulate temperature and water content of body fluids

lymphatic components

lymphatic fluid, vessels, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils

lymphatic functions

returns proteins and fluids to the blood, carries lipids

respiratory components

lungs, trachea, bronchial tubes, pharynx, and larynx

respiratory functions

transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled air

digestive components

mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus

digestive functions

achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food, absorbs nutrients

urinary components

kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra

urinary functions

produces, stores, and eliminates urine

reproductive components

gonads, uterine tubes, mammary glands, etc.

reproductive functions

gonads produce gametes to help form a new organism, mammary glands produce milk, etc.

life processes in humans

metabolism, responsiveness, movement, growth, differentiation, reproduction

homeostasis

a condition of equilibrium, or balance, in the body's internal environment

fluid in homeostasis

extracellular fluid

components of a feedback loop

stimulus, receptor, control center, effector, response

negative feedback loop

a feedback loop that causes a system to change in the opposite direction from which it is moving (example: change in blood pressure)

positive feedback loop

a feedback loop in which change in a system is amplified (example: pregnancy)

tissue

a group of cells that usually have a common embryonic origin in an embryo and function together to carry out specialized activities

4 basic types of tissue

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

cell junctions

cells that are held together in a variety of ways; point of contact between cells

tight junctions

adjacent plasma membranes with intercellular space between; stands of transmembrane proteins on the sides

adherens junctions

adjacent plasma membranes with microfilament (actin) along the middle with plaque in between

desmosomes

adjacent plasma membranes with plaque in the middle and keratin on the sides (crazy looking)

hemidesmosomes

attach epithelial cells to the basement membrane with keratin on the top

gap junctions

adjacent plasma membranes with connexons and gaps between

epithelial tissue

cells arranged in sheets and are densely packed, many cell junctions present, attaches to basement membrane, avascular with nerve supply, mitosis occurs frequently

epithelial cell diagram

classifications of epithelial tissue

simple, pseudostratified, stratified, squamous, cuboidal, columnar

gland

a single cell or a mass of epithelial cells adapted for secretion

endocrine and exocrine glands

glandular epithelium can have these two gland types

endocrine glands

glands that enter interstitial fluid and then diffuse the bloodstream without flowing through the duct; found in the pituitary gland, pineal gland, etc.; regulate metabolic and physiological activities

exocrine glands

glands that secrete onto the surface of covering and lining epithelium, such as the skin; sweat, oil, and cerumen glands; produce substances such as sweat to lower body temperature

structural classification of glandular epithelium

unicellular and multicellular

unicellular

single cells (example: goblet cells)

multicellular

composed of many cells that form a distinctive microscopic structure (sweat glands)

connective tissue

tissue that consists of cells and extracellular matrix; no free surfaces; highly vascularized with nerve supply (exceptions include tendons and cartilage)

extracellualr matrix (ECM)

located between the spaces of connective tissue cells; composed of fibers and ground substance

connective tissue fibers

collagen, elastic, reticular

classifications of connective tissue

loose, dense, cartilage, bone, blood

membranes

flat sheets of pliable tissue that cover or line a part of the body

2 types of membranes

epithelial and synovial

types of epithelial membrane

mucous, serous, cutaneous

integumentary system components

skin, hair, oil and sweat glands, nails and sensory receptors

integumentary system functions

helps the body maintain its temperature, production of vitamin D, provides sensory information, helps maintain homeostasis

2 major layers in skin

epidermis and dermis

hypodermis

located deep to the dermis but not a layer of skin; composed of areolar and adipose tissue (aka subQ)

integumentary system diagram

4 cell types in epidermis

keratinocytes, melanocytes, langerhans cells (intraepidermal macrophages) , merkel cells (tactile epithelial)

types of skin in the epidermis

thin (hairy) skin and thick (hairless) skin

thin (hairy) skin

type of skin that covers all body regions EXCEPT the palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and soles

thick (hairless) skin

type of skin that covers the palms, palmar surfaces of digits, and soles

five layers of the epidermis (superficial to deep)

stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale (CLGSB)

stratum lucidum

a layer of the epidermis found only in the thick skin

epidermis diagram

stratum basale

deepest layer of epidermis, composed of single row of cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes; melanocytes and tactile epithelial cells scattered

stratum spinosum

8-10 layers of keratinocytes with bundles of keratin intermediate filaments

stratum granulosum

3-5 layers of flattened keratinocytes, organelles are beginning to regenerate

stratum corneum

3-50 or more layers of dead, flat keratinocytes that contain mostly keratin

dermis

layer of skin composed of connective containing collagen and elastic fibers

papillary region

superficial portion of dermis; consists of areolar CT with thin collagen and fine elastic fibers

reticular region

deeper portion of dermis; consists of dense irregular CT with bundles of thick collagen and some coarse elastic fibers

melanin

pigment in the skin produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale

pheomelanin

yellow-red pigment

eumelanin

brown-black pigment

hemoglobin

red pigment in the red blood cells

carotene

a yellow/orange pigment stored in the stratum corneum and adipose tissue

albinism

congenital disorder characterized by the complete or partial absence of pigment in the skin, hair, and eyes due to a defect involving the production of melanin

vitiligo

chronic disorder that causes depigmentation patches in the skin

hair

composed of dead, keratinized epidermal cells; genetic and hormonal influences determine the thickness and distribution

parts of hair

the shaft, follicle, root

shaft

hair above the surface of the skin

follicle

hair below the level of the skin

root

hair that penetrates into the dermis (through the epithelial root sheath and dermal root sheath)

4 types of skin glands

sebaceous glands, eccrine sweat glands, apocrine sweat glands, and ceruminous glands

sebaceous (oil) glands

gland found in lips, penis, labia minora, and tarsal glands; located in dermis; mostly connected to hair follicles; secretes sebum; prevents hair from drying out; relatively inactive until puberty

eccrine sweat glands

throughout skin of the body, especially on thick skin; mostly in deep dermis and terminates on surface of epidermis; perspiration; active soon after birth

apocrine sweat glands (SMELLY)

found on axillary, groin, bearded regions of face; mostly in deep dermis and upper subQ; terminates through hair follicles; secretes perspiration; stimulated during emotional stress and sexual excitement; active after puberty

ceruminous glands

found in the external auditory canal; subQ layer; secretes ear wax; stops foreign bodies and insects from getting into ear canal; active soon after birth

functions of the skin

thermoregulation, blood reservoir, protection, cutaneous sensations, excretion and absorption, synthesis of Vitamin D

thermoregulation

sweat; blood flow to dermis (vasodilation and vasoconstriction)

blood reservoir

up to 5% of body's blood volume

protection of the skin

keratin, lipids, sebum, acidic sweat, melanin, macrophages

cutaneous sensations

tactile, thermal, pain

tactile sensations

touch, pressure, vibration, itch, tickle

synthesis of Vitamin D

UV rays activate precursor molecule allowing Vitamin D to be made; aids the absorption of calcium from foods in the GI tract