trait approach
personality traits are stable over time
personality can change
personality traits
degree to which a person is shy, creative, friendly, etc and is fairly consistent from year to year and even over decades
rank-order change vs. stability
people tend to maintain in the way in which they are different from other people of the same age
mean-level change vs. stability
at the mean level you can see that there is change
change, maintain
As we grow older our personality ________ but relative to other people we ________ our ranks.
personality development
change in the mean level of a personality trait over time
ego development
ability to deal with the social and physical world and to think for oneself when making moral decisions
cohort effects
people of different ages may differ because they grew up in different social and physical environments
longitudinal studies
same people are repeatedly measured over the years
better method for studying development
temperament
the "personality" of a very young, pre-verbal child
temperament
__________ is partially determined by genetics.
heterotypic continuity
the reflection of consistency of fundamental differences in personality that changes with age
Physical factors
________ ________ affect the experiences people have and are consistent throughout life.
Environmental factors
_______ _______ affect how people think, feel, and behave.
Birth order
_____ _____ IS NOT responsible for rank-order stability or personal differences among people.
early adverse experience
rejection by parents predicts difficulty forming relationships
being bullied predicts anxiety, paranoid thoughts, disorganized thinking
stress during childhood from poverty or maltreatment predicts stronger emotional reactions to daily stress
positive adverse experience
more educated parents have adult children who are more open, extraverted, and emotionally stable
cognitive stimulating activities, physical comfort, and present father predicts higher self-esteem
person-environment transactions
people tend to respond to, seek out, and create environments that are compatible with and magnify personality traits
active person-environment transaction
people seek out situations that are compatible with their personalities or avoid situations that they perceive as incompatible
reactive person-environment transaction
people with different personalities react differently to the same situations
evocative person-environment transaction
people do not choose their environment they change them
psychological maturity
behavioral consistency for traits that help one fulfill adult roles
cumulative continuity principle
personality becomes stable with age
maturity principle
people become better at dealing with the demands of life with age
plasticity principle
personality can change at any time but it may be difficult
role continuity principle
taking on a role can lead to consistency over time
identity development principle
consistency from self-view
social investment principle
changing social roles can cause personality change
corresponsive principle
person-environment transactions can cause personality traits to remain consistent even magnify over time
causes of development
intelligence and linguistic ability increase steadily throughout childhood and early adolescence
hormone levels change throughout childhood
different social roles throughout different stages of life
life demands different things at different stages of life so conscientiousness fluctuates
social clock
the traditional expectations of society for when a person is expected to have achieved certain goals
three
Every individual develops ______ aspects of identity one on top of the other.
actor
an individual develops the skills, traits, and roles that will allow one to begin to take place in society
agent
a person who is guided by goals and values
author
when one can tell their life story
psychotherapy
_____________ can produce long term behavioral changes.
conditions for personality change
person must think that changing some aspect of personality is desirable and change is possible
person must follow up by beginning to change the relevant behaviors one by one
over time changed behaviors will become habitual
may find that those traits have stabilized higher than before
biological approach
personality traits reflect physiological differences, are strongly influenced by genetics, and are rooted in evolutionary history
regions, circuits, networks
______, _______, and _______ in the brain are associated with particular aspects of personality and social behavior.
neuroscience
studies people with specific brain damage
Phineas Gage
a dynamite explosion sent a 3ft rod through his left cheek into the frontal lobes of his brain
caused an inability to emotionally react to decision making
frontal lobes control impulsivity and self control
pruning
the neural connections that don't get used become disconnected due to the conditioning of the environment we are in
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
uses rapidly changing magnetic fields to temporarily "knock out" areas of brain activity
electroncenphalography (EEG)
electrodes are placed on the scalp to pick up electrical signals generated by the brain activity underneath
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
uses delicate sensors to direct magnetic indication of brain activity
positron emission tomography (PET scans)
creates map of the brain activity by following the location of harmless radioactive transfer injected into the bloodstream
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
monitors magnetic pulses generated by oxygen in the bloodstream where the brain is most active in a given moment
frontal lobe
part of the cerebral cortex in either hemisphere of the brain lying directly behind the forehead
the ability to plan ahead, anticipate consequences, and for aspects of emotional experiences
amygdala
an almond-shaped neural structure in the anterior part of the temporal lobe of the cerebrum
links perceptions and thoughts with emotional meaning
anterior cingulate
important for experiencing normal emotions inhibited by the amygdala
controlling emotional responses and behavior impulses
posterior cingulate
important for processing information about time and space in reacting rapidly to stressful situations
hypothalamus
secretes several hormones
hippocampus
processes memories
thalamus
regulates arousal
neurotransmitters
critical for communication between neurons
dopamine
High levels of _______ lead to exploratory behavior, positive emotion, and responsiveness to rewards.
serotonin
Low levels of _______ lead to depression, anxiety, and obsessive worrying.
hormones
biological chemicals that affect the entire body
testosterone
High levels of _______ are associated with dominance, aggression, and competitiveness, and increased violent crime.
cortisol
Chronically high ______ leads to anxiety and depression
cortisol
Chronically low _______ leads to failure to respond to danger.
oxytocin
mother-child bonding
romantic attachment and sexual response
decrease fearfulness
increases perceptions of trustworthiness and attractions in others
cognition, emotion
__________ and __________ are extremely intertwined.
persistance
the ability to complete a task in the face of obstacles and in the absence of immediate rewards
c-system
involved in effortless, reflective thinking about self and others
x-system
involved in effortless, reflective social thought
behavioral genetics
addresses how personality traits that differ among individuals are passed from parent to child and shared by biological relatives
eugenics
belief that humanity could be improved through selective breeding
heritability coefficient
percentage of the variance of a trait in the population that can be attributed to variance in genes
heritability
examines how phenotypes may be attributed to variation in genotypes
Turkheimer's First Law
"everything is heritable" all traits vary
What does heritability tell you?
genes matter
insight into effects to the environment
What does heritability not tell you?
does not solve the nature vs. nurture puzzle
does not explain how genes affect personality
How does the environment interact with genes?
learning: neural circuits built by genes
epigenetics: turns genes on or off
gene-environment interactions
the genotype only provides the design so it affects the behavioral phenotype indirectly by influencing biological structure and physiology as they develop within an environment
evolutionary approach
assumes that human behavioral patterns developed because they were helpful or necessary for survival in the evolutionary history of the species
altruism
a tendency to aid and protect other people
inclusive fitness
protecting those around you to ensure the survival of your own genes
self-esteem
Feelings of -__ evolved to monitor the degree to which a person is accepted by others.
psychodynamic approach
assumes that personality reflects the unique ways in which each person has resolved
free association
instructing the patient to say whatever came to mind
psychological determinism
biologically based drives creates needs, wishes, and fears that determine behavior
internal structure
made of parts that can function independently and conflict with each other
id
all drives and urges
ego
constrains the id to reality
super-ego
internalized values
compromise formation
the ego's main hob is to find a middle course between the competing demands of morality, motivation, and practicality and among the many things a person wants at the same time
dreams
Freud said "wishes suppressed during the day assert themselves in ______".
defense mechanism
resolve conflict and reduce anxiety
repression
unpleasant thoughts and feelings are pushed out of awareness
denial
convincing yourself that an unpleasant or traumatic event did not or will not occur
displacement
threatening impulse/desire is redirected elsewhere
rationalization
generating logical reasons for outcomes that otherwise would not be acceptable
reaction formation
to block an unacceptable impulse the exact opposite behaviors/desires are displayed
projection
projecting one's own unacceptable qualities onto others
sublimination
convert unacceptable desire into acceptable behavior
experiences
Early _________ shape adult personality development.
psychosexual development
how life, energy, and libido becomes invested and then redirected over an individuals early years
secondary process thinking
the conscious part of the ego that thinks
primary process thinking
the way the unconscious mind operates and how the id is said to operate