Empire and Making of Iraq

Formal and informal empires

involve direct political control over a territory through colonial administration, such as mandates or colonies. Informal empires, by contrast, rely on indirect influence through economic dominance, military pressure, and political leverage. In Iraq, Britain exercised formal imperial control during the Mandate period. After independence, British influence continued informally through treaties, advisors, and economic interests. This distinction explains how imperial power persisted even when colonial rule officially ended.

Empire of capital

refers to imperial control exercised through economic systems rather than direct governance. In Iraq, foreign companies like the Iraq Petroleum Company dominated oil extraction and profits. This limited Iraqi economic sovereignty despite political independence. Economic dependency shaped government policy and foreign relations. The concept highlights how capitalism functioned as a form of imperial power.

Tribalism

is a social and political system based on kinship and clan loyalty. In Iraq, tribal affiliations structured rural life and shaped political allegiances. Both Ottoman and British authorities manipulated tribal leaders to maintain order. Tribalism could undermine state authority but also reinforce it. It remained influential well into the modern Iraqi state.

Ottoman Tribal School

educated the sons of tribal leaders in Istanbul. Its purpose was to create loyalty to the Ottoman state among tribal elites. Graduates were expected to act as intermediaries between tribes and the government. This policy aimed to modernize governance while weakening independent tribal power. It influenced later state strategies in Iraq.

Pan-Islamism

is an ideology calling for unity among Muslims across national borders. It emerged as a response to European imperialism and Muslim political decline. In Iraq, pan-Islamism competed with Arab nationalism and local identities. It emphasized religious solidarity over ethnic or territorial nationalism. While influential, it never became the dominant political ideology.

Nahda

was an Arab intellectual renaissance beginning in the nineteenth century. It promoted education, reform, and engagement with modern political ideas. Thinkers debated nationalism, Islam, and Western influence. The Nahda shaped Arab political consciousness in Iraq. It laid the groundwork for later nationalist movements.

is the intellectual revolution. it took place in najaf and baghdad with najaf being a house of political and economic change and baghdad more for educational reform.

World War I in Iraq

transformed Iraq from an Ottoman province into a site of imperial contestation. British forces invaded to protect oil interests and imperial routes. Ottoman authority collapsed during the war. Local populations suffered from famine, conscription, and instability. The war set the stage for British colonial rule.

It set the stage for the British influence in Iraq.

1920 Thawra

was a nationwide revolt against British occupation. It involved tribes, urban elites, and religious leaders. Protesters demanded independence and self-rule. Although suppressed, it forced Britain to reconsider direct rule. The revolt led to the creation of the Iraqi monarchy.

Appointed Faisal I King in order to appease the people and the monarchy.

Article 22

of the League of Nations Covenant established the mandate system. It framed former Ottoman territories as needing guidance toward self-rule. Britain used this framework to justify control over Iraq. The language masked colonial domination as benevolent assistance. It institutionalized imperial authority after World War I.

. The British Mandate

formally governed Iraq from 1920 to 1932. Britain controlled administration, military affairs, and oil resources. Iraqi elites were included but lacked real power. Resistance persisted throughout the Mandate period. Independence did not fully end British influence.

Rule from the Air

Rule from the Air was a British strategy using aerial bombardment to control territory. It reduced costs by limiting ground troops. In Iraq, it targeted rebellious tribes. The policy inflicted civilian suffering and destruction. It demonstrated the coercive nature of colonial rule.

The “Arab mind”

reflected colonial stereotypes. British officials portrayed Arabs as irrational and violent. These assumptions justified authoritarian governance. The idea ignored political grievances and historical context. It reinforced racist imperial ideologies.

The artificial state narrative

argues Iraq was an unnatural colonial creation. It claims borders ignored ethnic and sectarian realities. This narrative is often used to explain instability. However, it oversimplifies Iraqi history. It minimizes local agency and political development.

The author claims that the borders drawn by British are the cause of internal tribal disputes.

Arab nationalism

promotes unity based on shared language and culture. It gained strength after World War I. In Iraq, it competed with local and ethnic identities. It influenced political movements and parties. Arab nationalism shaped regional alliances.

Wataniyya

refers to Iraqi territorial nationalism. It emphasizes loyalty to the Iraqi state rather than the Arab world. Leaders like Qasim promoted it. It sought to integrate diverse ethnic groups. Wataniyya often conflicted with pan-Arabism.

Iraqi Kurds

are a major ethnic minority concentrated in northern Iraq. They have distinct language and cultural traditions. Kurds sought autonomy within Iraq. Their political movements faced repression. Kurdish-state relations remained tense throughout Iraqi history.

Iraqi Jews

formed one of the oldest Jewish communities in the Middle East. They were deeply integrated into Iraqi society. Rising nationalism and Zionism increased tensions. The Farhud marked a turning point. Most emigrated by the early 1950s.

Iraqi Jew = Iraqi first (Wataniya)

Comrade Fahd

was a leader of the Iraqi Communist Party. He organized workers and promoted class-based politics. Fahd emphasized discipline and mass mobilization. He was executed in 1949. His leadership strengthened the ICP.

Iraqi Communist Party

was one of the strongest communist parties in the Arab world. It attracted workers, Kurds, and intellectuals. The party opposed imperialism and inequality. It played a major role in post-1958 politics. The state frequently repressed it.

1941 Coup

was led by Rashid Ali al-Gaylani. It sought to reduce British influence. Britain quickly intervened militarily. The coup failed and strengthened British control. It destabilized Iraqi politics.

Took over an British Airbase
Habbaniya
British “rule of air”
Iraq deafeat
Rise of Pan-Arab

Farhud

was a violent pogrom against Iraqi Jews in 1941. It occurred during political instability. Hundreds were killed or injured. The event shattered Jewish security. It accelerated Jewish emigration.

1948 Wathbah

was a mass uprising against the Portsmouth Treaty. Protesters opposed continued British influence. Students and workers led demonstrations. The state responded violently. The movement radicalized Iraqi politics.

Multiple ethic groupings
Jew participation
violent demonstration

Nuri al-Sa‘id

was a dominant Iraqi politician under the monarchy. He supported close ties with Britain. Many Iraqis viewed him as authoritarian. He survived multiple coups. He was killed in 1958.

Dujayla Land Settlement Project

project aimed to settle landless peasants. It redistributed agricultural land. The project sought rural stability. Implementation was uneven. It reflected state-led modernization efforts.

Baghdad Pact

was a Cold War military alliance. It included Iraq, Britain, and other states. The pact aligned Iraq with the West. Many Iraqis opposed it. It increased domestic unrest.

1958 Revolution

overthrew the Iraqi monarchy. It ended British-backed rule. Crowds celebrated in Baghdad. The republic promised reform. It transformed Iraqi politics.

‘Abd al-Karim Qasim

led the 1958 Revolution. He promoted social reform and nationalism. He balanced competing political forces. Qasim recognized Kurdish rights. He was overthrown in 1963.

Monument to Freedom

commemorates the 1958 Revolution. It was designed by Jawad Salim. The monument depicts struggle and liberation. It symbolizes republican ideals. It remains a national landmark.

United Arab Republic

united Egypt and Syria. It represented pan-Arab aspirations. Iraq declined to join. Qasim opposed Nasserism. The UAR collapsed in 1961.

Kirkuk in 1959

experienced ethnic violence in 1959. Kurds and Turkmens clashed. Political tensions fueled conflict. State forces intervened. The events exposed deep divisions.

Ba‘th Party

promoted Arab nationalism and socialism. It emerged in the 1940s. The party favored authoritarian rule. It gained power through coups. It dominated Iraq for decades.

1963 Coup

overthrew Qasim. Ba‘thists and military officers led it. Communists were violently repressed. The coup reshaped Iraqi politics. It introduced Ba‘thist rule.

Oil Nationalization

transferred control to the Iraqi state. It reduced foreign dominance. Revenues increased dramatically. The policy strengthened state power. It funded development and militarization.

Militarization of the Gulf

became heavily militarized during the Cold War. Oil and strategic location attracted global powers. Arms buildup intensified. Regional conflicts escalated. Militarization reshaped regional politics.

Saddam Hussein

ruled Iraq from 1979 to 2003. He consolidated power through repression. His regime used violence and propaganda. Saddam pursued regional dominance. His rule ended with invasion.

Iran-Iraq War

lasted from 1980 to 1988. It caused massive casualties. The war drained resources. Chemical weapons were used. The conflict destabilized the region.

First Gulf War

followed Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait. A U.S.-led coalition intervened. Iraqi forces were defeated. Infrastructure was destroyed. The war reshaped Middle East politics.

. Highway of Death

refers to the bombing of retreating Iraqi forces. It occurred in 1991. Images shocked global audiences. It symbolized overwhelming force. It remains controversial.

Sanctions regime

were imposed on Iraq after 1991. They restricted trade and imports. Civilian suffering increased dramatically. Infrastructure deteriorated. Sanctions weakened Iraqi society.

2003 invasion

toppled Saddam Hussein. The U.S. cited security threats. Baghdad fell quickly. The invasion dismantled the state. It triggered prolonged instability.

Weapons of mass destruction

were cited as justification for invasion. They included chemical and nuclear claims. No active stockpiles were found. Intelligence was flawed. The issue undermined credibility.

Halliburton

was a major U.S. contractor in Iraq. It received reconstruction contracts. Critics alleged corruption. The company symbolized privatized war. It benefited from occupation.

Abu Ghraib

became infamous for abuse. U.S. soldiers tortured detainees. Images sparked outrage. The scandal damaged U.S. legitimacy. It symbolized occupation violence.

Fallujah

was a center of insurgent resistance. U.S. forces launched major assaults. The city suffered devastation. Civilian casualties were high. Fallujah became a symbol of resistance.

Iraqi Civil War

followed the 2003 invasion. Sectarian violence escalated. Militias competed for power. State authority collapsed. The conflict reshaped society.

De-Ba‘thification

removed Ba‘th members from power. It dismantled state institutions. Many were excluded from employment. The policy fueled resentment. It destabilized governance.

The Islamic State

emerged from post-invasion chaos. It captured large territories. The group used extreme violence. It declared a caliphate. International forces eventually defeated it.

The Turkish Restaurant

was a Baghdad high-rise. It was used during the 2003 invasion. U.S. forces occupied it. The building became symbolic. It represented urban warfare.