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From lectures: cells, integumentary, and skeletal (partial). Now complete :)
The energy source for the body is ___
food
What is the most important cellular fuel?
glucose
What contains potential energy in their chemical bonds?
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
Energy necessary for work in the cell is ___
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
What bonds in ATP are high energy bonds?
The bonds between the two terminal phosphates (A-P~P~P)
Are the bonds in ATP stable or unstable?
unstable
What kind of molecules have more energy and are capable of doing work?
phosphorylated molecules
cellular respiration
the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP
Oxidative reactions
when hydrogen atoms/molecules and thus electrons are removed from compounds
Reductive reactions
when hydrogen atoms/molecules and thus electrons are gained by compounds
Oxidized substances lose electrons which means
lost energy
Reduced substances gain electrons which means
gained energy
What is glucose oxidized to?
carbon dioxide
Various reactions in cellular respiration are facilitated by what?
enzymes
The goal of glycolysis is to break down __ and form __
glucose, pyruvate/pyruvic acid
Molecular oxygen is required for anaerobic processes (t/f)
False
What are the three phases of glycolysis?
Sugar activation, sugar cleavage, and sugar oxidation/ATP formation
The net ATP gain from glycolysis is ___
2 ATP
Where does glycolysis occur?
In the cytosol
The second phase of glycolysis produces ___ which is later used to make acetyl CoA
PGAL
NAD+ and FAD+ are examples of ____
electron/hydrogen acceptors
One molecule of glucose results in __ molecules of pyruvate/pyruvic acid
two
Why is NADH+H written like that?
The second hydrogen isn’t as strongly attached
When does fermentation occur?
When there is little oxygen available and NADH+H cannot relive itself from H atoms
In fermentation pyruvic acid is __ to lactic acid
reduced
Fermentation results in __ ATP per glucose molecule
two
What does prolonged anaerobic metabolism result in?
pH problems
What tree steps does pyruvate/pyruvic acid undergo to produced acetyl CoA
decarboxylation, oxidation, addition of CoA
Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?
In the mitochondrial matrix
How many cycles of the Krebs cycle occur for one molecule of glucose?
two
How many TOTAL oxidations and decarboxylations in the Krebs? (hint: two cycles in total)
eight oxidations and four decarboxylations
In the Krebs cycle, one molecule of ATP is formed how?
Through substrate level phosphorylation
The majority of ATP is produced through what type of phosphorylation?
Through oxidative phosphorylation
In the ETC, which electron donor comes in first?
NADH+H
In the ETC, which electron donor gives more energy
NADH+H
In the ETC, which electron donor comes in second?
FADH2
In the ETC, which electron donor gives less energy?
FADH2
What do the electrons travel over in the ETC?
iron-containing cytochromes
Oxygen is required for the ETC (t/f)
True
Electrons from one NADH =
2.5 ATP
Electrons from one FADH2 =
1.5 ATP
How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from glycolysis (including the ETC)?
7 ATP
How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from oxidized pyruvate (including the ETC)
5 ATP
How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from the Krebs cycle (including the ETC)
20 ATP
How many ATP are produced by cellular respiration in TOTAL?
32 ATP
Why only 30 ATP instead of 32 ATP?
two ATP are needed to shuttle electrons from outside the membrane (glycolysis) to the mitochondrial matrix (Krebs cycle)
What are the functions of the skeletal system?
support, protection, leverage for movement, produce blood cells, mineral storage, and fat storage
Example of the skeletal system acting as support
vertebral column supporting tremendous weight and holding up internal/soft organs
Example of the skeletal system acting as protection
vertebral column protects the spinal cord
Example of the skeletal system acting as leverage for movement
vertebral column providing surface area for muscles to attach
Where does the skeletal system produce blood cells?
within the marrow cavities of certain bones
What minerals are stored in the skeletal system and how are they distributed around the body
calcium and phosphorous; they are released into the bloodstream and circulated around
Why is fat storage important in the skeletal system?
It provides nutrition for those with less food available, considered a delicacy
Types of cartilage in adults
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Hyaline cartilage
flexible support
types of hyaline cartilage
articular, coastal, respiratory, and external nose
Where is articular cartilage found?
between bones
Where is coastal cartilage found?
within the rib cage
Where is respiratory cartilage found?
in the larynx and bronchi
Elastic cartilage
stretchy support
Where is elastic cartilage found?
in the external ear and epiglottis
Fibrocartilage
highly compressible support
Where is fibrocartilage found?
in the meniscus and intervertebral discs
Cartilage tissue
widely-spaced chondrocytes, mostly matrix, no nerves/blood vessels
Is the matrix in cartilage tissue living or non living
non living
What makes up the cartilage tissue matrix?
water and protein
perichondrium
covering of dense irregular connective tissue
The perichondrium contains blood vessels and nerves. (t/f)
False
What primarily occurs between the covering/hard matrix and the chondrocytes?
Diffusion
Diffusion in the perichondrium limits what two things?
thickness and healing
The perichondrium is weakly regenerative. (t/f)
True
Collagen
not stretchy, regenerative
When does bone formation begin in a fetus?
at 8 weeks
When is there significant bone formation in a fetus?
at 12 weeks
What makes up the living portion of bone tissue?
Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts`
Osteogenic cells
mitotic stem cells, produce osteoblasts
Osteoblasts
“bone germinators,” young cells, produce osteoid which matures into osteocytes
Osteocytes
mature osteoid/bone cells, maintain bone matrix, act as stress sensors, communicate information to cells responsible for bone growth
Osteoclasts
“bone breakers,” for bone reabsorption of bone, large multinucleated cells
Where are osteoclasts made?
From macrophage stem cells (WBC)
How do osteoclasts break down bone?
with acid
Non living portion of the bone tissue
matrix of glycoproteins and collagen, hydroxyapatites
Matrix of glycoprotein and collagen
aka osteoid, secreted by osteoblasts, flexible but strong/tough
Types of strength found in the non living matrix of bone
tensile (stretching) and torsional (twisting)
Living cells make hydroxyapatites. (t/f)
False
Hydroxyapatites make up ___% of the bone tissue
65
Hydroxyapatities
mostly calcium phosphate, mineral salts crystalize in and around collagenous fibers, cause matrix to be hard/inflexible
Types of strength found in hydroxyapatites
compressional (crushing)
Hematoposesis
formation of blood cells
Hematopoiesis occurs in what type of tissue?
Red bone marrow
Red bone marrow
consists of a high concentration of blood cells and immature blood cells, production of RBC/WBC and platelets
What are stem cells?
immature blood cells
How often are RBC replaced?
about every 120 days
Where are RBC stored primarily?
in the spleen
How often are WBC replaced?
about every 7-10 days
What is the site of hematopoiesis?
spongy bone
Spongy bone
a meshwork of bony plates called trabeculae with spaces between them, red bone marrow is in these spaces\
Trabeculae have Haversian systems like compact bone. (t/f)
False
In __ spongy bone, called __, is sandwiched between two plates of compact bone
flat bones, diploe
In what bones is red bone marrow found?
flat bones, short/irregular bones, epiphysis of long bones
Note
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