A&P Exam 1b (Part 1)

From lectures: cells, integumentary, and skeletal (partial). Now complete :)

The energy source for the body is ___

food

What is the most important cellular fuel?

glucose

What contains potential energy in their chemical bonds?

carbohydrates, fats, and proteins

Energy necessary for work in the cell is ___

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

What bonds in ATP are high energy bonds?

The bonds between the two terminal phosphates (A-P~P~P)

Are the bonds in ATP stable or unstable?

unstable

What kind of molecules have more energy and are capable of doing work?

phosphorylated molecules

cellular respiration

the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP

Oxidative reactions

when hydrogen atoms/molecules and thus electrons are removed from compounds

Reductive reactions

when hydrogen atoms/molecules and thus electrons are gained by compounds

Oxidized substances lose electrons which means

lost energy

Reduced substances gain electrons which means

gained energy

What is glucose oxidized to?

carbon dioxide

Various reactions in cellular respiration are facilitated by what?

enzymes

The goal of glycolysis is to break down __ and form __

glucose, pyruvate/pyruvic acid

Molecular oxygen is required for anaerobic processes (t/f)

False

What are the three phases of glycolysis?

Sugar activation, sugar cleavage, and sugar oxidation/ATP formation

The net ATP gain from glycolysis is ___

2 ATP

Where does glycolysis occur?

In the cytosol

The second phase of glycolysis produces ___ which is later used to make acetyl CoA

PGAL

NAD+ and FAD+ are examples of ____

electron/hydrogen acceptors

One molecule of glucose results in __ molecules of pyruvate/pyruvic acid

two

Why is NADH+H written like that?

The second hydrogen isn’t as strongly attached

When does fermentation occur?

When there is little oxygen available and NADH+H cannot relive itself from H atoms

In fermentation pyruvic acid is __ to lactic acid

reduced

Fermentation results in __ ATP per glucose molecule

two

What does prolonged anaerobic metabolism result in?

pH problems

What tree steps does pyruvate/pyruvic acid undergo to produced acetyl CoA

decarboxylation, oxidation, addition of CoA

Where does the Krebs Cycle occur?

In the mitochondrial matrix

How many cycles of the Krebs cycle occur for one molecule of glucose?

two

How many TOTAL oxidations and decarboxylations in the Krebs? (hint: two cycles in total)

eight oxidations and four decarboxylations

In the Krebs cycle, one molecule of ATP is formed how?

Through substrate level phosphorylation

The majority of ATP is produced through what type of phosphorylation?

Through oxidative phosphorylation

In the ETC, which electron donor comes in first?

NADH+H

In the ETC, which electron donor gives more energy

NADH+H

In the ETC, which electron donor comes in second?

FADH2

In the ETC, which electron donor gives less energy?

FADH2

What do the electrons travel over in the ETC?

iron-containing cytochromes

Oxygen is required for the ETC (t/f)

True

Electrons from one NADH =

2.5 ATP

Electrons from one FADH2 =

1.5 ATP

How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from glycolysis (including the ETC)?

7 ATP

How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from oxidized pyruvate (including the ETC)

5 ATP

How many ATP are produced in TOTAL from the Krebs cycle (including the ETC)

20 ATP

How many ATP are produced by cellular respiration in TOTAL?

32 ATP

Why only 30 ATP instead of 32 ATP?

two ATP are needed to shuttle electrons from outside the membrane (glycolysis) to the mitochondrial matrix (Krebs cycle)

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

support, protection, leverage for movement, produce blood cells, mineral storage, and fat storage

Example of the skeletal system acting as support

vertebral column supporting tremendous weight and holding up internal/soft organs

Example of the skeletal system acting as protection

vertebral column protects the spinal cord

Example of the skeletal system acting as leverage for movement

vertebral column providing surface area for muscles to attach

Where does the skeletal system produce blood cells?

within the marrow cavities of certain bones

What minerals are stored in the skeletal system and how are they distributed around the body

calcium and phosphorous; they are released into the bloodstream and circulated around

Why is fat storage important in the skeletal system?

It provides nutrition for those with less food available, considered a delicacy

Types of cartilage in adults

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

Hyaline cartilage

flexible support

types of hyaline cartilage

articular, coastal, respiratory, and external nose

Where is articular cartilage found?

between bones

Where is coastal cartilage found?

within the rib cage

Where is respiratory cartilage found?

in the larynx and bronchi

Elastic cartilage

stretchy support

Where is elastic cartilage found?

in the external ear and epiglottis

Fibrocartilage

highly compressible support

Where is fibrocartilage found?

in the meniscus and intervertebral discs

Cartilage tissue

widely-spaced chondrocytes, mostly matrix, no nerves/blood vessels

Is the matrix in cartilage tissue living or non living

non living

What makes up the cartilage tissue matrix?

water and protein

perichondrium

covering of dense irregular connective tissue

The perichondrium contains blood vessels and nerves. (t/f)

False

What primarily occurs between the covering/hard matrix and the chondrocytes?

Diffusion

Diffusion in the perichondrium limits what two things?

thickness and healing

The perichondrium is weakly regenerative. (t/f)

True

Collagen

not stretchy, regenerative

When does bone formation begin in a fetus?

at 8 weeks

When is there significant bone formation in a fetus?

at 12 weeks

What makes up the living portion of bone tissue?

Osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts`

Osteogenic cells

mitotic stem cells, produce osteoblasts

Osteoblasts

“bone germinators,” young cells, produce osteoid which matures into osteocytes

Osteocytes

mature osteoid/bone cells, maintain bone matrix, act as stress sensors, communicate information to cells responsible for bone growth

Osteoclasts

“bone breakers,” for bone reabsorption of bone, large multinucleated cells

Where are osteoclasts made?

From macrophage stem cells (WBC)

How do osteoclasts break down bone?

with acid

Non living portion of the bone tissue

matrix of glycoproteins and collagen, hydroxyapatites

Matrix of glycoprotein and collagen

aka osteoid, secreted by osteoblasts, flexible but strong/tough

Types of strength found in the non living matrix of bone

tensile (stretching) and torsional (twisting)

Living cells make hydroxyapatites. (t/f)

False

Hydroxyapatites make up ___% of the bone tissue

65

Hydroxyapatities

mostly calcium phosphate, mineral salts crystalize in and around collagenous fibers, cause matrix to be hard/inflexible

Types of strength found in hydroxyapatites

compressional (crushing)

Hematoposesis

formation of blood cells

Hematopoiesis occurs in what type of tissue?

Red bone marrow

Red bone marrow

consists of a high concentration of blood cells and immature blood cells, production of RBC/WBC and platelets

What are stem cells?

immature blood cells

How often are RBC replaced?

about every 120 days

Where are RBC stored primarily?

in the spleen

How often are WBC replaced?

about every 7-10 days

What is the site of hematopoiesis?

spongy bone

Spongy bone

a meshwork of bony plates called trabeculae with spaces between them, red bone marrow is in these spaces\

Trabeculae have Haversian systems like compact bone. (t/f)

False

In __ spongy bone, called __, is sandwiched between two plates of compact bone

flat bones, diploe

In what bones is red bone marrow found?

flat bones, short/irregular bones, epiphysis of long bones