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consciousness
Our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment.
cognitive neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating).
dual processing
The principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
blindsight
A condition in which a person can respond to a visual stimulus without consciously experiencing it.
parallel processing
Processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously.
sequential processing
Processing one aspect of a stimulus or problem at a time; generally used to process new information or to solve difficult problems.
sleep
A periodic, natural loss of consciousness — as distinct from unconsciousness resulting from a coma, general anesthesia, or hibernation.
circadian rhythm
Our biological clock; regular bodily rhythms that occur on a 24-hour cycle.
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur.
alpha waves
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.
NREM sleep
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep.
hallucinations
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.
hypnagogic sensations
Bizarre experiences, such as jerking or a feeling of falling, while transitioning to sleep.
delta waves
The large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep.
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm.
insomnia
Recurring problems in falling or staying asleep.
narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks.
sleep apnea
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep.
REM sleep behavior disorder
A sleep disorder in which normal REM paralysis does not occur.
dream
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind.
REM rebound
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.
sensation
The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment.
sensory receptors
Sensory nerve endings that respond to stimuli.
perception
The process by which our brain organizes and interprets sensory information.
bottom-up processing
Information processing that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information.
top-down processing
Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes.
transduction
Conversion of one form of energy into another.
psychophysics
The study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli and our psychological experience of them.
absolute threshold
The minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time.
signal detection theory
A theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus amid background stimulation.
subliminal
Below one’s absolute threshold for conscious awareness.
priming
The activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations.
difference threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time.
Weber’s law
The principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage.
sensory adaptation
Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation.
wavelength
The distance from the peak of one light wave or sound wave to the peak of the next.
hue
The dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light.
intensity
The amount of energy in a light wave or sound wave, influencing brightness or loudness.
cornea
The eye’s clear, protective outer layer, covering the pupil and iris.
pupil
The adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters.
iris
A ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye and controls the size of the pupil opening.
lens
The transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina.
retina
The light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones.
accommodation
The process by which the eye’s lens changes shape to focus images.
rods
Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, necessary for peripheral and twilight vision.
cones
Retinal receptors that function in daylight and detect fine detail and color.
optic nerve
The nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
blind spot
The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a “blind” spot.
fovea
The central focal point in the retina, around which the eye’s cones cluster.
Young–Helmholtz trichromatic (three-color) theory
The theory that the retina contains three types of color receptors.
opponent-process theory
The theory that opposing retinal processes enable color vision.
feature detectors
Nerve cells in the brain’s visual cortex that respond to specific features of the stimulus.
audition
The sense or act of hearing.
frequency
The number of complete wavelengths that pass a point in a given time.
pitch
A tone’s experienced highness or lowness; depends on frequency.
middle ear
The chamber between the eardrum and the cochlea containing three tiny bones.
cochlea
A coiled, bony, fluid-filled tube in the inner ear.
inner ear
The innermost part of the ear, containing the cochlea and balance structures.
sensorineural hearing loss
The most common form of hearing loss, caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells.
conduction hearing loss
A less common form of hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system that conducts sound.
cochlear implant
A device for converting sounds into electrical signals and stimulating the auditory nerve.
place theory
The theory that links the pitch we hear with the place where the cochlea’s membrane is stimulated.
frequency theory
The theory that the rate of nerve impulses matches the frequency of a tone.
gate-control theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological “gate” for pain signals.
gustation
Our sense of taste.
olfaction
Our sense of smell.
kinesthesis
Our movement sense; sensing the position and movement of body parts.
vestibular sense
Our balance sense; sensing body movement and position.
sensory interaction
The principle that one sense can influence another.
embodied cognition
The influence of bodily sensations and states on cognitive preferences and judgments.
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