Ap psychology unit 4

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

Ecological Perspective on learning

Focuses on how learning is influenced by the environment and interactions with it.

Stimulus

any event or situation that evokes a response

response

a reaction to a stimulus

Reflex

a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

unconditioned stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally triggers a response

unconditioned response (UR)

A natural reaction to the unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A once-neutral stimulus that now triggers a response after being paired with the US.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus.

Nuetral Stimulus

a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

acquisition

The process of learning the association between two stimuli.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

Extinction

When the conditioned response fades because the CS is no longer paired with the US.

Spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

responding similarly to a range of similar stimuli

Discrimination

Learning to respond differently to similar but distinct stimuli.

second-order conditioning

When a new neutral stimulus becomes conditioned by being paired with an already conditioned stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus

Stimulus generalization

When a conditioned response happens to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

John Watson and Little Albert

Demonstrated that fear can be conditioned in humans (Albert learned to fear a white rat).

Tolerance and drug addiction

The body learns to expect drugs in certain settings, causing tolerance and withdrawal effects.

Food/taste aversion

Classically conditioned avoidance of a food or taste, usually occurs after only one pairing

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

One-trial conditioning

Learning with only one pairing of stimulus and response.

counter conditioning

Replacing a negative response with a positive one (e.g., pairing a feared object with relaxation).

Edward Thorndike

Pioneer in operant conditioning who discovered concepts in intstrumental learning such as the law of effect. Known for his work with cats in puzzle boxes.

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist who developed the theory of operant conditioning by training pigeons and rats using reinforcement and punishment

Reinforcer

Anything that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

punishment

Anything that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

positive reinforcement

Adding something good to increase behavior (e.g., giving candy).

negative reinforcement

Removing something bad to increase behavior (e.g., stopping a loud noise).

positive punishment

Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior (e.g., scolding).

negative punishment

Taking away something good to decrease behavior (e.g., losing privileges).

Discriminative stimulus

A cue that signals when a certain response will be reinforced.

Secondary reinforcers

Learned rewards (e.g., money, grades) that get value from primary reinforcers.

Habituation

Getting used to a stimulus so you no longer react to it.

Blocking Effect

When a previously learned cue prevents learning a new cue.

hefferline experiment

One group was told that they had to make a certain movement to make a static noise stop while listening to music, and another group was told nothing. Both groups involuntarily made the thumb twitch needed to stop the static because they had been operantly conditioned unknowingly

Schedules of reinforcement

Rules about how and when behaviors are reinforced.

fixed ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of predictable responses. (5th time)

variable ratio

Reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses (slot machine)

fixed interval

reinforces a predicted response only after a specified time has elapsed (every 10 min)

variable interval

reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals (pop quizzes)

Scalloped graph

A pattern seen in fixed-interval schedules where responses increase as the reward time approaches.

S-S theory

Learning is about forming a mental link between two stimuli.

S-R theory

Learning is about forming a direct link between a stimulus and a response.

Difference in S-S and S-R theory

S-R theory posits that a stimulus directly causes a response, whereas S-S theory suggests that the first stimulus leads to a mental representation of the second stimulus

Expectancy Theory

The theory that motivation will be high when workers believe that high levels of effort lead to high performance and high performance leads to the attainment of desired outcomes.

Reward Contrast effects

A sudden shift in the attractiveness of a reward

Negative Contrast Effects

When a smaller reward than expected decreases motivation.

Positive contrast effect

When a bigger reward than expected increases motivation.

Means-end knowledge

Understanding that one action leads to a specific outcome.

Tolman's cognitive maps

Mental representations of physical spaces, showing learning without reinforcement (latent learning).

David Bandura

Psychologist who studied learning through observation. (bobo doll)

observational learning

learning by observing others

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Bobo Doll Experiment

Bandura's study showing children imitate aggressive behavior they observe.

Social Learning Theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished

vicarious conditioning

Learning by seeing others being rewarded or punished.

Delayed Gratification

Resisting an immediate reward for a better one later.

Overjustification Effect

The effect of promising a reward for doing what one already likes to do. The person may now see the reward, rather than intrinsic interest, as the motivation for performing the task.

Latent Learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it - not obvious signs until after

insight learning

Sudden realization of a solution ("aha!" moment).

Priming Effect

exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus

mirror neurons

Brain cells that fire when you do or observe an action.

Behaviorism

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2).

Shaping

Gradually training a behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations to the desired action.

Chaining

Teaching a complex behavior by linking smaller learned behaviors together in sequence

Instinctive Drift

When learned behavior slowly returns to natural instincts, even after conditioning.

Learned Helplessness

When someone stops trying to escape or improve a bad situation because past efforts failed.