Unit 5 - Learning

classical conditioning (aka pavlovian) (PAVLOV)

a type of learning where we link 2+ stimuli, as a result the first stimulus comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus (ex: pavlov’s classic experiment - bell makes dog drool in anticipation of treat)

neutral stimulus (NS)

(classical conditioning) a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

(in pavlov’s experiments - anything from shapes to sounds to touches)

unconditioned stimulus (UCS/US)

(classical conditioning) a stimulus that unconditionally - naturally and automatically - triggers an unconditioned response

(in pavlov’s experiments - the food)

unconditioned response (UCR/UR)

(classical conditioning) an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation, pavlov) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth, pavlov)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

(classical conditioning) an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

(in pavlov’s experiments - the tone, etc.)

conditioned response (CR)

(classical conditioning) a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

(in pavlov’s experiments - salivation (in response to tone, etc.))

acquisition (aka initial learning)

(classical conditioning) the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response

(operant conditioning) the strengthening of a reinforced response

extinction

the diminishing of a conditioned response

(classical conditioning) when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus

(operant conditioning) when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause of an extinguished conditioned response

(ex: after a pause from extinction (a few hours for the dogs after weakening response) the response came back (weaker than initial))

counterconditioning (COVER JONES)

a behavior modification technique in which a stimulus that creates a negative emotional response is paired with something known to create positive emotional response in that organism

flooding

immerses a person in their fear in an effort to reduce it (immediate exposure to the stimulus)

(ex: sticking someone (afraid of spiders) in a room of spiders for a few hours)

aversion

used to help people give up a behavior/habit by having them associate it with something unpleasant

operant conditioning (SKINNER)

a type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher

focuses on punishment and reinforcement

operant chamber (skinner box) (SKINNER)

in operant conditioning research, a chamber (aka skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food/water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking

shaping

an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

(ex: husband laundry shoot, rat gradually learns to push bar)

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response

(ex: isaac crying gets him a trip to the mall)

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli

any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response (not a punishment)

(ex: dad giving a trip to the mall reduces isaac’c crying)

premack principle

a higher probability behavior will reinforce a less probably behavior

(ex: grandma gives kids ice cream if they eat their vegetables)

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

intermittent (partial) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than continuous reinforcement

Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

(operant conditioning) a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

highest rate of responding

(ex: culvers scoopie tokens)

variable-ratio (VR) schedule

(operant conditioning) a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

high rate of responding

(ex: slot machine, fly fishing)

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

(operant conditioning) a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

choppy stop-start response pattern

(ex: checking a mailbox more frequently when delivery time is approaching)

variable-interval (VI) schedule

(operant conditioning) a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

slow, steady responding

(ex: constantly checking phone and then getting a long awaited text)

positive punishment

administer an aversive stimulus every time the response occurs (adding something bad to decrease behavior)

(ex: giving a time out)

negative punishment

withdraw a rewarding stimulus every time the response occurs (taking something good away to decrease behavior)

(ex: taking phone away)

taste aversion

a learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness such that the food is considered to be the cause (a shift from positive to negative in the preference for a food)

(ex: wolf and sheep study - wolves and coyotes were tempted into eating sheep carcasses laced with a poison, they then developed an aversion to sheep meat)

cognitive map (TOLMAN)

a mental representation of the layout of one’s environment

(ex: after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it)

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

(ex: learning because you want to, reading for fun, etc.)

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

(ex: studying for good grades or to not fail an exam)

external locus of control

the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

internal locus of control

the perception that we control our own fate

observational learning (social learning) (albert BANDURA)

learning by observing others

modeling (albert BANDURA)

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

(ex: bobo doll and child aggression experiment)

Ivan Pavlov

russian experimental neurologist/psychologist known for his discovery of classical conditioning through experiments with dogs

father of classical conditioning (aka pavlonian conditioning)

set the foundations for John B. Watson

contiguity theory - time between us and cs have to be small

believed cognition (consciousness) didn’t matter and had no role in learning

B.F. Skinner

american psychologist

father of behaviorism

father of operant conditioning (operant: any behavior that acts on the environment and leads to consequences)

behaviorism (WATSON)

the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental process; most research psychologists agree with (1) and not (2)

psychic secretions (classical conditioning)

pavlov used this term to describe that the salivation from the dog anticipating the food from other stimuli (ex. the bowl) was due to the physiological power of the digestive system through nervous input

john b watson

father of behaviorism , little albert study

Early behaviorist; emphasis on external behaviors of people and their reactions on a given situation; famous for Little Albert study in which baby was taught to fear a white rat, also used generalization-inductive reasoning

higher-order (second-order) conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker)conditioned stimulus

ex)an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begins responding to the light alone

generalization (stimulus generalization)

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses

(operant conditioning) generalization occurs when responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations

• the ability to adapt to similar situations from a previously know behavior

ex) albert was then also scared of rabbit, dog, seal skin coat

discrimination (stimulus discrimination)

(classical conditioning) the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus

(operant conditioning) the ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced

mary cover jones

mother of behavior therapy; counterconditioning

systematic desensitization (WOLPE)

gradual, imaginal exposure to stimuli organized in a hierarchy from least to most feared (starts with lowest fear)

ex) peter and the white rabbit (gradually introducing the rabbit)

joseph wolpe

Systematic desensitization used in therapy

instrumental learning (THORNDIKE)

a psychological principal where behavior is shaped by its consequences (trial and error); it posits that actions followed by rewarding outcomes are more likely to be repeated, whereas actions followed by adverse outcomes are less likely to occur again

focuses on consequences

law of effect (THORNDIKE)

thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences becomes less likely

edward thorndike

american psychologist

established the law of effect

instrumental learning

experimented with cats in a puzzle box

puzzle box (THORNDIKE)

cat rewarded with fish when finding their way out of a puzzle box, with more trials, time taken decreased

chaining

breaks a task down into small steps and then teaches each step within the sequence itself

discriminative stimulus

(operant conditioning) a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

escape conditioning

occurs when an organism learns to perform an operant behavior to terminate an aversive stimulus/event

ex) pressing a button to turn off a loud alarm

avoidance conditioning

organism is conditioned to respond to an anticipated unpleasant event by avoiding the aversive stimulus when a signal is perceived

ex) someone learns to leave a room before and alarm sounds (given a cue)

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

ex) food (biological needs)

conditioned (secondary) reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer

ex) good grades, money, etc.

token economy

a system of operant conditioning/behavioral modification in which people earn tokens for displaying desired behavior and can later exchange them for rewards/privileges

ex) classroom behavior charts, chore charts

biofeedback

a system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back info regarding a subtle psychological state, such as blood pressure or muscle tension

aids in allowing a person to learn techniques for controlling a particular physiological response

biological preparedness

a biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste and nausea, that have survival value

ex) birds can create aversions to sights of food since they are biologically primed; we usually from them to the taste of food

biological constraint

a limitation on classical or instrumental conditioning that is observed despite the use of procedures that would be expected to produce successful learning

ex) chimpanzees can learn to use sign language nut not to speak

instinctive drift

the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns

ex) pigs lost skill to put wooden dollars into piggy banks for food (reverted to pushing them into mud with snout)

contiguity theory (PAVLOV)

psychological theory of learning which emphasizes that the only condition necessary for the association of stimuli and responses is that there be a close temporal relationship between them (any stimulus response connected in time/space will tend to be associated)

ex) new study technique leads to good grades creating the association between the technique and good grades

contingency theory (RESCORLA)

states that the CS tells the organism that the US will follow

(classical conditioning) 1st stimulus needs to reliably predict the arrival pf the 2nd stimulus for learning to result

(operant conditioning) a voluntary behavior needs to reliably predict the consequence in order for the organism to learn

robert rescorla

specialized in the involvement of cognitive processes in conditioning

believed that cognition (perception) matters in learning/conditioning

contingency theory

latent learning (TOLMAN)

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (ex. french class)

ex) tolman’s experiment with rats

edward tolman

latent learning + cognitive maps

latent learning rat study

investigated role of cognitive process in operant conditioning (challenging behaviorists like skinner)

insight (KOHLER)

a sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

(involves with perceived solutions, not reward/consequence, finding that people can learn when they understand an entire situation)

wolgang kohler

gestalt psychologist - insight learning

first demonstrated insight with chimpanzee experiments (noticed that the solution process wasn’t slow but sudden and reflective)

overjustification effect

when intrinsic motivation to perform an action is reduced by being offered a reward (extrinsic)

ex) girl who loves reading is then given candy everytime she reads → leading her to read less

problem-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

ex) going to a family member directly to resolve a dispute

*(believe we can change the situation)

emotion-focused coping

attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding/ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

ex) reaching out to friends in stressful situations for comfort

*(believe we can’t change the situation)

edwars toleman’s latent learning rat study

• group one - no reinforcement - lowest rate of learning

• group 2 - reinforcement every time they reached the end of the maze - learning took place with rapidly decreasing errors

• group 3 - no reinforcement for 10 days and then reinforcement for the last 7 - similar to group 1 for first 10 but then dramatic improvements for last 7 (faster than 2)

self-control

the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

albert bandura

observational/social learning

modeling - bobo doll experiment

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. the brain’s mirroring of another’s actions may enable imitation and empathy

(related to autism disorder)

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior (opposite of anti-social behavior)

ex) helping, sharing, consoling, comforting, cooperating, protecting, etc.

antisocial effects

generally defined as behavior that violates the basic rights of others

denoting/exhibiting behavior that sharply deviates from social norms and also violates other people’s rights

ex) arson, vandalism, etc.

watson and rayner - little albert study

the study - associating white rats and loud noises in baby to test classical conditioning

UCS - loud noises

UCR - crying

NS - white rat

CS - white rat

CR - crying

little albert’s fate - died at young age but was afraid of dogs, was not aware of the significance of study

john watson’s fate - got fired bc of affair, went into advertising using psychology to improve ads (ex. coffee break)

immediate reinforcers

gratification happens right away

ex) rat food

delayed reinforcers

delayed gratification

ex) good grades at the end of term

john garcia (and robert koelling)

taste aversions

conducted rat studies with radiation sickness

garcia and koelling’s rat studies

UCS - radiation/drugs

UCR - sickness (nausea + vomiting)

NS - plastic tasting water, certain sounds/tastes/sights

CS - plastic tasting water, certain sounds/tastes/sights

CR - sickness (nausea + vomiting)

surprising findings :

1. even if sickness happened a few hours after, the rats still avoided that flavor

2. the sickened rats developed aversions to tastes but not sights or sounds

comparison (classical and operant conditioning)

acquisition: associating…

• events; NS is paired w/ US and becomes CS

• a response w/ a consequence (reinforcer/punisher)

extinction:

• CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone

• responding decreases when reinforcement stops

spontaneous recovery: the reappearance, after a rest period, of an extinguished…

• CR

• response

stimulus generalization:

• the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS

• responses learned in one situation occurring in other, similar situations

stimulus discrimination: learning (difference) …

• to distinguish between a CS and other stimuli that don’t signal an US

• that some responses, but not others, will be reinforced

differences - automatic vs voluntary

respondent (involuntary, automatic) vs operant (voluntary, operates on environment) behaviors

learning associations between…

• events we do not control

• our behavior and its consequence