AP Comparative Government Exam Review Cards

Authoritarian

A system of government in which decisions are made by political elites, without much input from citizens. They may be ruled by a single dictator, a hereditary monarch, a small group of aristocrats, or a single political party.

EX: China

Bureaucracy

Literally "rule by the desk," they consist of agencies that generally implement government policy. They are usually part of the executive branch of government. They are often majority merit based, with hierarchical structure, and have well established formal rules.

Charismatic Leader

A person or group with a dynamic personality that inspires followers to support him/her/them. Occasionally, followers with be devoted to the point that they would die for their leader. Governments based on this principle rarely continue past their founder.

EX: Tony Blair, Mao Zedong, Ayatollah Khomeini

Civil Service

The term for the portion of the government that is involved in improving the quality of life of the citizens. They are appointed based on merit rather than political affiliation.

Civil Society

The term or organizations outside the state that aid citizens in advancing their interests. They are very strong in liberal democracies, where citizens are more encouraged to exercise their freedoms. Organizations may be based on class, religion, or ethnic ties, or may go above these to create a more united society outside of governmental control.

Cleavages

This is the term for divisions in society that should theoretically be outside the bounds of political issues. They include class, religion, and ethnicity and have a large impact of policy making. Can be either cross-cutting or cumulative.

EX: Religion in the UK is a societal cleavage, and it is often cumulative with the other cleavage of ethnicity. Northern Irish Catholics vs. British Protestantism.

Cross-cutting cleavages

Cross-cutting cleavages are many cleavages that divide the population in different ways and along different lines, and prevent too much polarization.

Cumulative cleavages

Cumulative cleavages are multiple divisions that fall almost exactly along the same line in the population, and leader to a more divisive and polarized state.

Democratic Corporatism

This arrangement is when government officials interact with people or groups outside the government before they set policy. Often times these groups are business or labor leaders, or members of a patron-client system.

EX: In some countries, such as Mexico, unions operate under corporatism, where the union represents a large fraction of the workers and has a large influence in governmental policy.

Coup d' etat

Literally "blows to the state," they are a replacement of the leadership of the country with new leaders. Coups are often carried out by the military and usually occur when the new leader forcibly takes power when political institutions are weak.

EX: In Iran, in 1953 there was a coup d'état against the elected government to place the authoritarian and pro-Western Shah back into power.

Command Economy

Economies where centralized planning and state ownership are the norm. Command economies have strong ties to socialist principles, and are mostly fading from existence in favor or market or mixed economies.

EX: The Soviet Union and China both had command economies, where industries were state owned and the government had massive oversight on the economy.

Constitution

A constitution is a set of basic rules concerning decision making, rights, and the distribution of authority in a political system. They can be fully written out o based on tradition and precedent.

EX: The UK constitution does not exist as a single documents, but rather as all previous laws and interpretations of the Law Lords, with a strong basis in tradition and legitimacy from the Monarchy

Decentralization

Policies that aim to transfer some decision-making power from higher to lower levels of government, where the lower level of the government cannot be dissolved by the national power. The power is placed into a sovereign body that shares its power with the national government.

EX: In the US, powers granted to the states are decentralized, where power cannot be removed from the entirely, nor can states be dissolved.

Democracy

A regime which bases its authority on the will of the people. They are often indirect, with the people voting directly for a representative for the legislative branch, and occasionally the executive branch (presidential system). Generally speaking businesses and corporations are allowed to more independently of the government in the economy.

Devolution

Policies that aim to send power down to lower levels of government, but differing from decentralization in that the lower levels of government can be dissolved at the national level. This is a form of making the decision-making process closer to the people, though it is not federalism.

Elite Recruitment

A process of identifying and selecting a person or group of people for future leadership positions. This may be done based on merit and education.

EX: In the UK, much of the elite recruitment comes from traditional Oxbridge education system, with high scoring students being courted for government work.

Ethnicity

A group of people who identify with each other because of shared culture and/or language.

Federalism

Power is divided between the central government and other sub-units, which cannot be dissolved by the central government. It has a middle position in the amount of concentrated power that it holds; less than a unitary system and more than a confederal system.

EX: Russia, US, Nigeria

First-Past-the-Post

Seats for the legislature are divided into single member districts. In each district a candidate wins by a plurality of the vote. This favors major parties and discriminates against small parties which are unlikely to win a majority in any one district.

EX: In the UK, the House of Commons seats are chosen using a first-past-the-post system, which limits the number of seats gained by the Liberal Democrats

Separation of Power

This describes how power is held in the government. Separation of powers places legislative, executive powers, and judicial powers into separate entities, which are able to check other entities. In a parliamentary system, the legislative and executive branches are fused, creating a stronger power, but reducing checks.

Head of State

The person or persons that symbolize and represent the people, nationally and internationally, though they may lack real power.

Head of Government

The head of government is the person or persons who are in charge of the daily running of the government. They are usually in charge of the executive branch, an direct the action of their subordinates in this function.

Illiberal Democracy

Countries that have free, regular, and fair competitive elections, but lack civil liberties, rule of law, open civil society, neutrality of judiciary, and civilian control of the military.

EX: Russia

Governmental Institutions

These are structures of a political system that carry out the work of governing. Common institutions are the legislature, executive, judicial systems, bureaucracy, and the army.

Interest Group Aggregation

The activity in which the political demands of individuals and groups are combined into policy programs.

EX: Farmers petition for higher crop prices is heeded by Parliament.

Interest Group Articulation

The way that citizens and social groups express their needs and demands to the government.

Iron Triangle

A term used to describe the relationship between the legislature or a sub-body of the legislature, an interest group, and a department of the bureaucracy.

EX: In the US, the relation between FAA, Airline lobbies, and Congress

Judicial Review

The mechanism that slows courts to review laws and executive actions for their constitutionality.

EX: The overturning of a handgun law in D.C. by the Supreme Court for violation of the 2nd amendment

Legitimacy

The right to rule as determined by the citizens of a nation, There are many sources of legitimacy, with 3 basic forms; traditional, charismatic, and rational-legal.

Mixed Presidential/Parliamentary System

A system of government that fuses elements of a presidential system and a parliamentary system. The executive branch is divided between the President and the Prime Minister, usually in separate defined spheres of influence.

EX: Russia, where the president focuses more on foreign affaires while the Prime Minister focuses on domestic issues.

Multiparty Systems

A governmental system in which more than one party has political influence. The parties are independent of each other, they do not require the sanctions of another party.

Nation/Nation-State

A nation is a group of people bound together by a common political identity. A nation-state if a nation that has achieved statehood.

EX: The Kurds are a nation and France is a nation-state, with little diversity to cause much conflict.

Nationalization

The possession of economic industries by the government, a common product of socialism.

Nomenklatura

The list started by Lenin of people suited for top government position under the USSR; the hierarchy of the Communist Part in the USSR.

EX: Krushchev was selected as the next leader of the USSR following Stalin's death as he was the next highest of the nomenklatura

Oligarchy

Literally "rule by the few," important political decisions are made by a select group of people in charge of the government.

One-Party System

A system of government when all decisions are controlled by a single ideological party. No other parties are allowed without the sanction of the party.

EX: China's Communist Party is the only true party in China, all other parties needing the sanction of the Communist Party to participate.

Perestroika

Literally "restructuring," economic reforms introduced by Gorbachev in the waning years of the USSR.

EX: Gorbachev reformed collective farms, pricing systems, and joint ventures under Perestroika

Parliamentary System

A governmental system where citizens vote for their legislative representatives who in turn select an executive among themselves. This system fuses the executive and legislative branches.

Patron-Client Politics/Clientelism

A process whereby the state co-opts members of the public by providing specific benefits or favors to a person or small group of persons in return for public support.

EX: Mexico used patron-clientelism under the PRI, where votes were bought and political favors exchanged in return for loyalty.

Interest Group Pluralism

A system of organizing interest groups where there are a variety of groups for one political interest, membership in each group is not compulsory and is limited, the structure of the group is decentralized, and there is a clear separation between the interest group and the government.

EX: In the US, there are many unions to represent teachers, and their influence over the government is limited.

Plurality

The single most, without necessarily having a majority. It is often used as the basis for winning a single member district in the first-past-the-post system.

One-Party Dominant System

A system of government where the government is dominated by a large majority of a single party. Other parties exist and are independent of the dominant party, but their role is subdued by the lack of representation.

Political Culture

The collection of political beliefs, values, practices, and institutions that a government is based on. The government reflects these views in their policies.

Political Socialization

The forces which help citizens form their opinions about politics. The major force of political socialization is the family, as children form their opinion based on the opinions of their parents.

EX: the propaganda of the USSR is still visible today with the majority of citizens of Russia who still see Stalin as a great leader.

Post-materialism

The valuing of things beyond material possessions, such as a desire to protect the environment, fight for social equality, or self-expression. These values are generally found in a postindustrial society.

Power

The measure of a person's ability to control those around him.her and the environment they are in. In terms of politic, it is the ability of someone to enforce their decisions through persuasion or force.

EX: Power in the UK in mainly held by the PM, who can both pass laws and enforce them.

Presidential System

A governmental system where citizens vote for their legislative representatives as well as directly for an executive. This system keeps the legislative and executive branches separate.

EX: Mexico

Regime

The fundamental institutions and practices of a political system, such as the basic belief of where power should reside, how power should be used, and the nature of citizens' relationship with their government.

EX: The UK is a regime

Regime Change

A regime change is a change in the institutions or principles behind a government that reflects a major change in how power is held and exercised.

EX: The recent switch of the Russian Duma to an all proportionally elected house represents a regime change

Republic

A government where the people have an impact of the governmental structure. The structures of republics vary from country to country.

EX: Russia is a republic, with the public voting for their legislative members and their president.

Shock Therapy

Economic reforms established by Boris Yeltsin when the USSR fell. The three elements of Shock therapy where Liberalization, Stabilization, and Privatization.

Single Member Districts

Seats for the legislature are divided so that one seat is represented by specific geographic area. Candidates compete for a plurality in each district in order to win the legislative seat.

Sovereignty

The ability of the state to carry out actions or policies within their borders independently from interference either from inside or outside the country.

EX: Northern Ireland does not have sovereignty as it has to have approval of its actions by the UK government.

State

A group of people under one government that shares a budget, borders, currency, and a police force or military.

Unitary State

A government where all power is centralized, and any sub-unites exist at the discretion of the central government.

Vote of Confidence

A vote that can be initiated by any member of parliament, that if not passed dissolves the government and requires new parliamentary elections to be held.

EX: A UK vote of confidence can cause all parliament members to come up for reelection, including the prime minister.

Welfare State

The state is responsible for the protection and promotion of economic and social security for the citizens, equality of opportunity, public distribution of wealth, with a responsibility to provide for those unable to do so for themselves.

EX: The National Health Service of the UK is an example of the UK Welfare state.

Bonyad

Supposed charity trusts that control a large portion of Iran's GDP. They operate outside governmental control, not having to pay taxes or publish accounts, answering only to the Ayatollah.

EX: The Bonyad Mostazafen va Janbazan, (Foundation for the Oppressed and Disabled) is one of the most well-known of Iran's bonyads, with massive holdings in the textile and soft drink industries.

Camarilla

A hierarchical network in which offices and benefits were exchanged in return for loyalty to the head or "Caudillo". Dates back to the warlordism of the early 19th century among various revolutionary caudillos. Used under the PRI to secure votes.

Catch-all (Umbrella) Party

A political party with a broad platform, made up of many factions that disagree of specific issues. An umbrella party allowed for a larger voters base at the expense of a narrow ideological position.

EX: The PRI in Mexico was an umbrella party, shifting its ideology to maintain its power.

Common Law

Common law is based on the principle of "state decisis," meaning the source of the law is judicial precedent. The legislature can also pass new laws and statues.

EX: Britain uses common law.

Code Law/Civil Law

Code/Civil Law differs from Common Law in that the law is based in the constitution or legislation of the country. Law can be interpreted, but not made, but judges.

Sharia Law

Law that comes from the Qur'an and Hadith, holy books of the Islamic faith.

Communism

A socialist government and economy set up where the Communist Part controls the government, economy, and even aspects of social life. It was developed by Lenin and based off Marxist theory.

Consociational Democracy

A form of government involving guaranteed group representation, and is often suggested for managing conflict in deeply divided societies.

EX: Nigeria is a consociational democracy, with its deeply divided political culture held together via group representation.

Correlation

Correlation is when a relationship is noted between two or more observable values.

EX: The increase in education level is correlated with a more liberal viewpoint within the US

Causation

Causation if when one value change is known to precipitate another variable to change in a known direction.

EX: The increase in global temperatures is caused by an increase in total GHG's in the atmosphere, which is grave concern to countries across the world.

Democratization

The shift of countries from non-democracies to democracies according the Samuel Huntington. Thought to occur in waves, the first gradually growing, the second beginning after WWII, and the third being characterized by the defeat of dictatorship in South America and Africa.

EX: Mexico's shift from a corrupt "democracy" under the PRI to real democracy is attributed to this third wave of democratization

Economic Liberalization

The movement of economic towards a more open, free market system, often attributed to globalization.

EX: NAFTA opened up trade among US, Mexico, and Canada, creating economic liberalization of the international trade between these three countries.

Electoral System

The rules that decide how cotes are cast, counted and translated into seats in a legislature. This system may by plurality or proportionally based, or a mix of both.

EX: Mexico is a mixed electoral system, incorporating both plurality an proportional representation into its Senate.

Development

The movement of countries into an industrial or service based economy from a primarily agricultural or labor based economy. Often accompanied by increase in GDP and standard of living.

EX: The purpose of the 5 Year Plans in China and the Ussr were to encourage development of the countries industries.

Fragmentation

A tendency for people to base their loyalty on ethnicity, language, religion, or cultural identity.

EX: Nigeria has undergone fragmentation in response to the increased globalization of the country, with strong loyalties to traditional values and religion.

Globalization

An integration of social, environmental, economic, and cultural activities of nations that has resulted from increasing international contacts.

EX: the formation of trade agreements and organizations such as NAFTA and the World Bank are a result of globalization of the world.

Identity Politics

Political actions on behalf of an identifiable group that fees oppressed or marginalized in society.

EX: There is a strong desire for identity politics in southern Mexico in order to improve the status of the Amerindians living there.

Interdependence

Being mutually responsible to and sharing a set of common principles with others.

Market Socialism

A market economy where the industries and institutions of the economy are owned by the government, but are run according to the rules of supply and demand.

EX: China currently fits a version of market socialism, where there exist Township and Village Enterprises, which are owned by the government but function like a private business.

Military Government

A government where legitimacy comes from military might rather than a written constitution or tradition. It may also refer to the government set up by a country that has invaded a territory.

EX: The governments of many South American countries are military governments, where the military seized power in a coup d'état.

Multinational Corporation (MNC)

Business enterprises that have active business operations physically in more than one country. The business has its headquarter in its home country and makes significant investments in host countries in the form of stores and offices.

EX: McDonalds and Starbuck's have locations in many countries across the world.

Nationalism

A sense of identity with people of similar ethnic, language, religious, or territorial background.

EX: China has a sense of nationalism, united by their overwhelming ethnic homogeny

Newly Industrialized Country

A term for a country that has experienced recent economic growth and a tendency towards democratization and political and social stability.

EX: Mexico and Iran are newly industrialized countries, both coming out of authoritarian regimes into a more democratic process and experiencing economic growth.

Non-Governmental Organization

A legal organization of private organizations and individuals that is not representative of any government agency. These organizations tend to focus of environmental and humanitarian. These constitute a large part of civil society.

EX: China has recently allowed NGOs to register with the government, though there may be many other functioning NGO's operating in China.

Parastatal

An organization that is partially or fully government owned. They are very present in centrally planned economies and play a large role in national bureaucracy.

EX; Nigeria has explicit state corporations as part of its bureaucracy, and the QUANGOs of the UK fall into this category as well.

Political Integration

Political integration is the combination of two politically distinct areas into a united political system. This often creates a political system over distinct cultural regions.

EX: Nigeria underwent political integration following its independence, as the administratively distinct regions under the British system were united.

Political Participation

Political participation refers to the ways citizens are active in the political system of their country. It includes voting, petitioning the government, campaigning for candidates, or running for office themselves.

Privatization

The transfer of state-owned industries into private ownership.

EX: China underwent controlled privatization of certain industries under Deng's move towards a more market based economy.

Proportional Representation

An electoral system in which citizens vote for a particular party and seats in the legislature are distributed based on the percentage of votes for each party.

EX: Mexico and Russia both have elements of proportional representation, with partial proportional representation in the Mexican Senate and proportional representation in the Russian Duma.

Rentier State

A country that derives a substantial portion of its revenue from the rent is indigenous resources to an external organization or country.

EX: Iran derives a substantial portion of its revenue from the leasing of oil to OPEC, making it a rentier state.

Rent-Seeking

A term for self interested political pursuits for private gain. These individuals are highly corrupt, abusing the system for their own benefit at the expense of the system.

EX: Nigeria has a high prevalence of rent-seeking in its political culture.

Revolution

A term for change at a more basic level than that of reform, including a major revision or complete overthrow of existing institutions. It usually affects more than one aspect of life.

EX: The USSR and later Russia, China, Nigeria, Iran and Mexico have all had revolutions in their political history.

Rule of Law

The supremacy of the law over any individual or organization, the concept that everyone is accountable to written regulations.

EX: Liberal democracies stress the rule of law, creating a more stable political atmosphere.

Structural Adjustments

Structural adjustments are policy changes made in developing countries by the IMF and World Bank. They tend toward privatization and neo-liberal economic policies.

Import Substitution

Import substitution is an economic system in which high tariffs are imposed on imports in order to build up the industry of the country so they are able to compete in the global scale in the future.

EX: Mexico implemented import substitution under the Cardenas era and was later made to make structural adjustments in order to be forgiven of much of its debt.

Suffrage

The right to vote.

EX: Women were granted suffrage in the UK in 1918, following their vital role in WWI

Supranational

An organization that goes beyond country borders, including international organizations. They are usually associated with globalization.

EX: the European Union is a supranational organization, affecting the governments if its 27 member states to a large degree, as well as the nations it has dealings with.

Theocracy

A theocracy is a political system based on the idea that a deity is the supreme leader of a country, and that the country is run based on the advice and teachings of a religious institution or person with claim to divine inspiration.

EX: Iran functions as a theocracy, with the Ayatollah being the supreme leader of the country.

Totalitarian

A term used to describe a political system that regulates almost all aspects of public and private life. These are often maintained using propaganda and terror tactics.

EX: The USSR moved into a totalitarian regime under Stalin, when he began to control all industries and dictate private matters as well.

Two-Party System

A political system where there exist only two parties that are significantly represented in the government. These parties tend to be umbrella parties, in order to fain popular support.

EX: The US is a two-party system with the Republicans and the Democrats.