Hist 213 UNC Midterm

Strategic Air Power

use of air power to defeat an adversary. independent of the actions of surface forces

controversial

advocates strategic bombing - stressed ability of

aerial bombardment to destroy enemy infrastructure, disrupt political cohesion, and break the will of the enemy state

downside of bombing=committing war crimes. killing civilians is illegal. debate on moral implications

Tactical Air Power

An air operation involving the employment of air power in coordination with ground or naval forces to:a. gain and maintain air superiority;b. prevent movement of enemy forces into and within the objective area and to seek out and destroy these forces and their supporting installations;c. join with ground or naval forces in operations within the objective area, in order to assist directly in attainment of their immediate objective.

Lighter than air

balloons, non-rigid airships, semi-rigid airships, rigid airships

Problems with WEATHER

Include work of Montgolfier brothers in the 1780s

Heavier than Air

principles of flight

Bernoulli's Principle and Newton's Laws

Axes of flight

Cayley, Langley, Chanute, Lilienthal and Wright

Brothers all studied this

most include a steel frame

"aeroplanes"

4 Major forces that act on aircraft

Lift v. weight (up and down). Lift>weight - Rises. Weight>lift - falls

Drag v. thrust (slow and speed). Drag>thrust - slows. Thrust>drag - accelerates

weight=force caused by gravitational attraction of Earth

thrust=force generated by engines

drag=whenever moving object redirects airflow mpvong around it. Biplane=more drag than monoplane

lift=force generated by a solid object that is pushing up

balloons

a bag, usually spherical, made of silk or other light, tough, non porous material, filled with a gas which is lighter than air OR air which has been heated to reduce its weight per volume. It flies for the same reason that a boat floats. Reason=buoyancy.

uses=reconnaissance, artillery spotting, bombing, morale booster, mail, escape, air transport of supplies

airship

describes a steerable or controllable steer-ship. "Dirigible"="Airship" (same thing). Apply to non-rigid, semi-rigid, and rigid airships. 1870's-1880's

non-rigid airship

blimp - first used to spot enemy submarines

lighter then air with gas bag/skin not supported by any framework and reinforced by stiffening

semi-rigid airship

dirigible having main envelope reinforced by a keel but not completely rigid

used for longer flights and has partial framework

aluminum used

usually a few longitudinal ribs

EX: Zeppelin brand

rigid airhship

several cells reinforced by a metal framework

first aircraft of this type flew in 1900 in Germany

Zeppelin evolved and able to form a company

may be used to describe any cigar-shaped airship

Daniel Bernoulli

observed differential in pressure caused by velocity

Bernoulli's Principle="the pressure of fluids vary inversely with their velocity"

the faster particles move, the lower their pressure

air is moving faster above wing, therefore pressure is lower

size of wing makes a difference

Top air flows faster bc of FLOW TURNING (curve of wing pushes air out of way. Wing is moving and disturbing air so it is pushed up and over)

Isaac Newton

3rd law=When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to that of the first body.

aircraft movement terminology

yaw=left to right

roll=rotate around length of aircraft

pitch=nose up or down (affects air speed too) (bringing nose up slows the aircraft)

6 degrees of freedom: 1) turn (yaw) left 2)turn (yaw) right 3) tilt (roll) left 4) tilt (roll) right 5) nose (pitch) up 6) nose (pitch) down

rudder

diverts airflow

controls yaw

one on tail of plane

wrights used these to provide control

ailerons

controls roll and also diverts air flow

left and right ailerons on top of wings

"aileron roll" rolls aircraft 360 degrees in a longitudinal roll

elevators

control pitch

on rear stabilizer

wrights used to increase control

flaps and slats

alter lift and drag

increase bernoulli's effect

increase turn

allows landing at a lower speed

increase lift and drag

flaps on trailing edge of wing

slats on leading edge of wing

air power

use of the area above the surface of the earth to your advantage - usually to affect warfare on or under the surface of the planet

denying some advantage to an adversary

functions=military, commercial, agriculture and forestry, data collection (political, strategic, tactical, weather, resources, search and rescue, traffic)

3 components of tactical air power

interdiction - isolating the battlefield

close air support (CAS) - supporting troops while in combat with the enemy

command of the air - objective is to deny the enemy the ability to use air power for their purposes and to allow free/unrestricted use of your own air forces

degrees of command of the air

air supremacy - degree of air superiority wherein opposing air force is incapable of effective interference

air superiority - degree of dominance in air battle of one force over another that permits conduct of operations by the former and its related land, sea, and air forces without prohibited interference by opposing air forces

interdiction

restrict/prevent enemy's ability to reinforce, supply, or withdraw the forces they have on the battlefront

"isolation of the battlefield"

targets usually include transportation networks and systems

related mission = armed reconnaissance (locating and attacking targets of opportunity)

part of tactical air power

dynamic targeting

targets identified too late or not selected for action in time

close air support (CAS)

part of tactical air power

objective to provide direct support to friendly forces

dangerous and difficult to execute bc identifying targets close to your own people and flying low close to enemy with weapons

military and basic doctrine

describe/guide proper use of forces in military operations. position on BEST way to do something. What is TAUGHT. Based on experience to date. Accumulation of knowledge. Doctrine = a school solution

fundamental principles by which military forces guide their actions in support of national objectives. Authoritative but requires judgement. Sometimes referred to as "strategic doctrine"

most efficient use of air delivered explosives is to destroy the most enemy capabilities possible

naval air power

until end of WWII american naval air power focused on tactical support of surface naval operations - the case even when primary source of naval offensive power was the aircraft carrier

sought command of the sea by commanding air over it

since WWII, naval air/missile forces have also taken on strategic air missions. Triad including nuclear submarines

naval missions include: air defense, offensive counter air, anti-warship strike, interdiction (land/se targets), reconnaissance, CAS (amphibious landings), search&rescue, supply&transp., strategic bombardment!

air power in the early years

metaphysical flight-egyptians

China kites 500 BC

Da Vinci (15th-16th cent.) - drew gliders, helicopters, parachute

Father Francesco Terzi - idea for lighter than air flight

Montgolfier brothers

1770s

noted paper rose in updrafts of father's chimney and occasionally a sheet of paper would continue rising even when leaving the immediate area of the chimney

experiments with silk bags with heated air inside (observed weight differential)

1783-public demonstration. inspired ben franklin

competitive with Jacques Charles and announced "manned" flight - public outrage, so tested with animals first

caused ballooning frenzy of the 1780's

Balloons in the American Civil War

1861 - US Army Balloon Corps set up under Professor Lowe. he sent first telegraph message from airborne balloon

using hydrogen took time and was dangerous

bulky equipment

many people believed the reconnaissance capabilities of balloons had their merit

Peninsula Campaign 1862 - both sides used balloons. balloons proven not as effective as they would've hoped.

Franco-Prussian War

first major use of balloons for COMMUNICATION

1870-1871

nearly 70 sorties besieged Paris

carried 110 passengers, 3 mill letters, and tons of carrier pidgins out of the city

tethered balloon offered high vantage point but nothing else

1898 - Greely's balloon used to direct artillery fire during Battle of San Juan Hill

balloons HAD to be tethered, otherwise non-controllable

dirigibles

steerable balloon "airships" in late 19th century

1884 first successful flight

1897- electric Canadian version more efficient

1900 - first Zeppelin design

"Flying Monk"

11th cent

early example of the lure of heavier than air

from England

used wings and jumped from tower

broke both legs

Sir George Cayley

investigated heavier than air flight

3 bladed propellor on toy top caused it to fly

kept meticulous records

observed birds soaring and noted arching of wings

1853 - first man carrying glider

identified forces of lift, drag, and thrust

pioneer of 19th century

Otto Lilienthal

German who trained as mechanical engineer

experimented with gliders and published book

1896 - fatal crash in biplane glider

his "normal glider" was popular item sold

did a lot of testing - almost too much

built 5 monoplane and 2 biplane gliders

stressed need for wing flapping (also observed birds)

combined research with trial and error

pioneer of 19th century

Sir Hiram Maxim

experimental biplane with advanced, light, powerful steam engine in 1891-1894. Wasn't trying to fly at first - just to test propulsion but was so powerful that it actually flew

became wealthy from machine gun designs

Percy Pilcher

1866-1899

British in race to invent airplane

developed 4 different hang gliders but seldom tested his craft in free flight-towed them with rope which acted as a stabilizing force. difficult to evaluate his designs and compare to others. even with tow rope, still dangerous

his goal was to use small internal combustion engine for powered flight but died in crash in 1899 before he could test it

Octave Chanute

1832-1910

"synthesizer" who got records of Lilienthal and others and published a book

structural engineer whose most famous bridge was Hannibal Bridge

developed some of the most successful heavier than air aircraft designs prior to the Wright's

Chanute-Herring glider most significant design prior to W's

"Katydid" multi-plane glider redesigned 6 times

invested a LOT of hours and resources into flight . Had $$$

Samuel Langley

1834-1906

1889 test flew stuffed birds

designed rubber band powered model airplanes in 1887

1891 developed steam powered air drones

1893 moved experiments onto houseboat on Potomac

problems with weight, engine flaws, and weak wings

1897 decided to quit but Army offered him $50,000 in 1899 to research manned flight. 1899-1903 experimented with scaled and full sized crafts

his failures gave gvmt and public negative view of aviation's potential. Distracted from successes of Wright's

Wright Brothers

neither graduated from high school, after Lilienthal's death in 1896, they focused on issue of CONTROL

1899 built glider with "warpable" wing tips for control

1900 made Kittyhawk, NC testing ground

Summer 1902 tested elevator controls and improved rudder

next step-SUSTAINABLE flight - built own 12 horse power engine and propeller and successfully flew on DEc 17, 1903

produces, powerful, sustainable, controlled, reproducible flight. Army finally gave them contract after multiple refusals in 1909. JP Morgan. their aircraft obsolete by 1914.

Dumont

Brazilian who flew Oct 1906

many europeans believed he was first to fly

flew in more visible locations than Wright's

Louis Bleriot

first to cross English Channel July 1909

overshadowed Wight's successes

"V" model design

monoplane a real success

first European to use wing warping effectively

Bleriot XI use of castor oil

got lots of media attention

A.V. Roe

built models and full sized prototypes 1907-1908

his full sized design endured many crashes and first aerial hop was June 8, 1908 - he was never "officially" verified

his triplane DID fly!

Glen Curtiss

formed first aeroplane company on Nov 1907 without actually ever flying himself until 1908

Aerial Experiential Association

famous June Bug plane flew 1908 and got national media coverage

he sued Wright's for patent infringement in use of ailerons - Curtiss survived suit and brought down Wright's image

dropped dummy bombs on outline of battleship on June 1910

flew first hydroplane 1911

Samuel Cody

first OFFICIAL powered flight in Britain on Oct 8, 1908 distance of 500 yards

sells first airplane to the British

Eugene Ely

civilian pilot flew off USS Birmingham on Nov 14, 1910

landed on USS Pennsylvania in San Francisco Bay then took off of it in January 1911

died October 1911 by not pulling out of a dive

Pancho Villa

1916

US Army use of aircraft v. Pancho Villa

engine problems - get too hot and dry then fail

Until WWI balloons, dirigibles, and aircraft were primarily reconnaissance vehicles weren't seen as weapons of war

"dead reckoning"

used by pilots of 1914

method of estimating one's current position based on previously determined positions

Summer 1914 stats

Germans strongest

limitations - bombs primitive and small and aircrafts cant carry big or very many bombs at a time, limited aircraft performance, cruder bombsights, crude release systems

flechettes dropped from aircraft - very small and arrow shaped that cause serious injury

realization that it was advantageous to prevent enemy reconnaissance while developing own air capabilities

deflector plates

Created by the French aviator Roland Garros in 1915

on propeller first used by French in Spring 1915 to deflect bullets

sometimes dangerous - could backfire (ricochets)

they worked!

Anthony Fokker

tested synchronization mechanism with 2 spandau machine guns

found german pilots to go up and do testing

German's enjoyed a tactical advantage in 1915-1916 because of his work

benefitted from Boelcke and Immelmann - recognized advantage of surprise, stern attacks, higher altitudes, quick maneuvers changing direction, and creation of specialized units

Fall 1915="Fokker Scourge" - but allies copy ideas in 1916

Immelmann

German ace

famous turn/loop- a 1/2 loop with a 1/2 snap roll at the top - reverses direction utilizing gravity

dies June 18, 1916 which helped allies

how he died is debated

his death proved that death even comes to the "greats" - became a hero of almost mythical proportions

showed that making heroes of aces was a double edged sword

Ace's and "The Ace Factor"

Germans begin process with publicity of Immelmann and Boelcke in 1917

use quantification - certain # of aircraft to shoot down to be coined an "ace"

British initially reluctant to embrace system but eventually did - morale and hype were very powerful

Red Baron=best known with 80 kills

alternative to "knights of the air" image

positive thing bc provided heroes, stressed bravery, promoted importance of aviation. leads to separate culture.

The Red Baron

best known "ace" with highest scores in WWI - 80 kills

aggressive personality - enjoyed the kill - hunting

used red aircraft as a psychological ploy

portrayed as exceptional warrior by Germans but sadistic killer by allied sources

chosen to command a wing combining 4 squadrons - unit called "the flying circus".

tended to go for stragglers

ended up dying in battle in the air - his funeral made him glorious

1917 air power facts

specialized fighter planes had vital role

air reconnaissance and observation considered indispensable for ground force commander

CAS feasible but problematic

interdiction successes not consistent

fatality rates grew

lack of operational training

everyone learning from british leaders

trench warfare continued

Lafayette Escadrille

around 1918

formed by french and americans as pilots

originally "Escadrille Americane" - americans trained

changed name to "Escadrille Lafayette"

Raoul Lufbery

first american ace

developed Lufbery Circle (friendly aircraft form a defensive circle)

innovative tactician

had credibility of proven success

talents as a patrol leader

one of his students was Eddie Rickenbacker (leading American ace in war)

died in dogfight in the air in 1918 bc his plane unexpectedly caught fire

Strategic bombing delivery systems in WWI

Airships

Bomber aeroplanes

psychological implications of strategic bombing

Germans first to grasp implications

used Zeppelins to create fear among civilians by flying over cities

actual damage from dropping bombs was overestimated

Zeppelins

first airships used in WWI

used for bombardment

first ascent in 1900

stability control issues-gravity issues, temp change, buildings and trees as obstacles

reconnaissance as primary mission

stronger metal frames

Aug 1914 bombing missions

German raid "phases" in WWI

interdiction and retaliation missions in 1914

Zeppelin strategic raids in 1915-1916

Daylight raids with aircraft in summer 1917

Night raids by bomber aircraft and Zeppelins in late 1917 and 1918

Kaiser

German who placed restrictions originally but in Jan 1915, lifted the restrictions to bomb any city including London

First raid on Britain in Norfolk in JAn 1915

nature and weather=biggest factor frustrating efforts

German bombers in london in June 1917

Sept 1917 turned to night raids

2 categories of reformers

tactical - correlated to land war reformers

strategic - argued air power could replace surface operations for both armies and navies

Blitzkrieg

most famous tactical innovation/doctrine to emerge

break thru front, surround enemy, and either force them to surrender by of lack of resources OR attack directly

air power becomes flying artillery

Trenchard

an EXPERIENCED Army officer-came to flying late

Understood tactical importance

Chief of RAF 1919-1929

Doctrines evolved toward strategic air power

initially promoted expanding tactical missions, massed air power, and deeper strikes from 1915-1918

developed an independent air force to strike at strategic targets

more of a "doer" than a writer

Commodore PRC Groves

advocated idea of "knock out blow" delivered from air

director of flying operations

influenced Trenchard

his message: be ready!

Douhet

Italian who became involved with air force in 1911 and assigned to aviation duty. books on mechanization of war.

predicted that weapons were "way of future"

commands first aerial bombardment in Libya

Believed high altitude bombing should be primary role of aircraft

underestimated aiming problems

his book "command of the Air" - stressed a SHORT war, hitting urban and political targets. sky must become battlefield. strong air force could compensate for strategic inadequacies. Armies and navies "organs of indirect attrition". Numbers and eliminating enemy is what matters. Wanted fleet of massive bombers. Pre-emption= destroying enemy forces ON THE GROUND - BEST way to win command of the air. Land and sea forces to have secondary role. Aircraft used against high value targets. Cause loss of enemy morale and will to fight. The EARLIER the attack, the better.

"Command of the Air" by Douhet

stressed a SHORT war, hitting urban and political targets. sky must become battlefield. strong air force could compensate for strategic inadequacies. Armies and navies "organs of indirect attrition". Numbers and eliminating enemy is what matters. Wanted fleet of massive bombers. Pre-emption= destroying enemy forces ON THE GROUND - BEST way to win command of the air. Land and sea forces to have secondary role. Aircraft used against high value targets. Cause loss of enemy morale and will to fight. The EARLIER the attack, the better.

Suggested combo of high explosive, incendiary, and chemical weapons with emphasis on last 2. Chemical weapons reduced effectiveness of defensives. Targets=will of people, industrial centers. Apocalyptic view of war - scary. If you did it right, wouldn't need a defense at all. build more bombers!!! Agreed on need for reconnaissance. Knew you had to choose targets-couldnt hit everything. "shock and awe" by public. He scared ppl. believed rapid termination of hostilities would save lives in the end so NOT immoral

William "Billy" Mitchell

Called for increased funding for Air Force

insisted that naval vessels could be sunk by bombing, despite the limited evidence. Eventually sank a German battleship Ostfriesland at anchor - cheating caused uproar.

Heavily awarded by the end of WWI

court marshaled in 1926, and found guilty - resigned

Reincarnated in movies (played by Gary Cooper) and books

destroy "vital centers" - economic cornerstones

Increased hostility and reputation of airpower

Aug 6, 1946, the US Congress authorized a special medal in his honor that was presented to his son two years later by General Carl Spaatz, Chief of Staff of the newly independent Air Force. (may or may not have been a medal of honor)

"Victory of Airpower" by Disney was a movie that cemented his beliefs