Anthropology 101 Midterm 1 (UofA)

Strepsirrhines

One of the two suborders of primates used in cladistic classification. They retain more primitive traits and rely heavily on their sense of smell. Examples include lemurs, lorises, and galagos.

Haplorrhines

One of the two suborders of primates used in cladistic classification. They have more derived traits and rely less on their sense of smell. Examples include apes, old world monkeys, and humans.

Franz Boas

Considered the father of modern American anthropology. He opposed scientific racism and promoted cultural relativism, using a four-field approach (past and living culture, language, and biology) in his work. His work led to a holistic approach to anthropology.

Oldowan

Earliest known tool culture, characterised by simple stone tools; associated with Australopithecines.

Acheulian

A tool culture associated with Homo erectus. It featured more complex tools than Oldowan, including handaxes and double-edged blades.

Mousterian

A tool culture associated with Neanderthals. It was even more complex and featured flaking methods and bone tools.

Anthropology

The study of human nature, human society, human language, and human past.

Four-field approach

The approach in anthropology that involves exploring living culture, past culture, language, and biology as a whole when studying a group of people.

Archaeology

The subfield of anthropology that studies past material culture and aims to reconstruct human activity and behavior based on discoveries.

Biological/physical anthropology

The subfield of anthropology that focuses on human biology, evolution, and variation.

Cultural/sociocultural/social anthropology

The subfield of anthropology that focuses on all societies and cultures to understand what is unique about specific cultures and find unifying traits across cultures.

Linguistic anthropology

The subfield of anthropology that focuses on language and other forms of communication, analyzing the correlation of language and social identity.

Holism

A characteristic of anthropology that integrates all that is known about human beings and their activities.

Comparative

A characteristic of anthropology that requires the study of differences and similarities between human societies before making conclusions.

Cultural Relativism

The belief that all humans, societies, and cultures are equal, requiring researchers to let go of biases and understand the perspectives of those they study.

Biocultural theory

The theory that humans are influenced by both biological and cultural forces.

Evolutionary theory

A set of testable hypotheses that explain how living organisms can change over time and share common ancestry.

Essentialism

A pre-Darwinian idea that explains organisms in the natural world without changes occurring.

Great Chain of Being

A pre-Darwinian idea that explains links in all living things with different levels of complexity and shared traits; follows 3 main principles: Continuity, Plentitude, and Unilinear Gradation

Catastrophism

A pre-Darwinian view of the natural world; proposes that natural disasters (catastrophes) cause the extinction of a species, which are then replaced by new species

Uniformitarianism

A pre-Darwinian view of the natural world; posits that past natural processes can be understood by using current processes to reconstruct earth’s history

Transformational evolution (Lamarckian evolution)

The idea that all members of a species transform in identical ways to adapt to changes in the environment

Variation

Naturally occurring differences between members of a population of a particular species

Natural selection

The two-step mechanism by which descent with modification occurs; involves (1) genetic mutations and (2) the survival and reproduction of variants best suited to the environment. This is the first step to evolution when it occurs in a population

Adaptations

Physical characteristics that enhance an organism's ability to survive and reproduce

Mendelian inheritance

The idea that heredity is based on non-blending single-particle genetic inheritance

Gene

A portion of DNA that codes for particular proteins that shape phenotype

Allele

Different forms a particular gene can take

Homozygous

Receiving the same allele from both parents for a specific trait

Heterozygous

Receiving different alleles from both parents for the same trait

Mutations

Sudden formation of a new allele for a gene, which can be beneficial, harmful, or inert

• Second cause for evolution if occurrence is in gametes

Genotype

The genetic combination of an individual's alleles

Phenotype

The observable characteristics of an organism's genotype

Genome

The sum of all genetic information in an organism

Phenome

The set of all traits expressed by an organism

Gene flow (Admixture)

The exchange of genetic material between populations of the same species

• Third cause for evolution

Genetic drift

Changes in allele frequency due to random forces or occurrences

• Fourth cause for evolution

Speciation

The formation of new species through reproductive incompatibility and lineage splitting

Biological Species Concept

Groups of populations that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring, and are reproductively isolated from other groups

Reproductive Isolation

Circumstances that prevent two populations of the same species from interbreeding

Adaptive Radiation

The development of many closely related species from a common ancestor

Convergent Evolution

The development of similar species due to similar responses to environmental pressures

Taxonomy

The biological classification of organisms

Traditional Classification

Primate order classification based on anatomical complexity/similarity

Cladistic Classification

Taxonomy based on homology and the degrees of similarities and differences resulting from cladogenesis

Primate Order

An order within the class Mammalia that shares traits with other mammals such as mammary glands, warm-bloodedness, long gestation periods and larger brains.

Primate characteristics

Defining traits of being a primate, including arboreal adaptation, dietary plasticity, parental investment, vertically oriented skeletal structure, touch, forward facing eyes with colour vision, and reduced dentition compared to ancestors

Parental investment

Extended time and energy expended by parents who raise few offspring.

Primate Characteristic: Skeletal structure

Vertically oriented with separate bones and highly mobile joints, allowing for a greater range of motion.

Primate Characteristic: Touch

Highly tactile fingers and toes, as well as flat nails (instead of claws) that protect fingertips and allow the spread of force when gripping.

Primate Characteristic: Vision

Forward-facing eyes with stereoscopic and color vision.

Primate Characteristic: Reduced senses

Due to increased vision, smell and hearing reliance decreased.

Primate Characteristic: Dentition

Primates have fewer teeth than their ancestors.

Types of Primate Traits: Primitive [ancestral]

Inherited traits from a distant ancestor; visible throughout evolutionary lineage (e.g. body hair).

Types of Primate Traits: Derived [evolutionary]

More recently appearing; useful to distinguish groups or determine relatedness (i.e. colour vision now vs. black and white vision in ancestral primates).

Types of Primate Traits: Generalised

Multipurpose characteristics (like opposable thumbs).

Types of Primate Traits: Specialised

Traits with a specific purpose (i.e. grooming claw).

Strepsirrhini

Suborder of primates that includes lemurs, lorises, and galagos.

Haplorhini

Suborder of primates that includes tarsiers, monkeys, apes, and humans.

Platyrrhines

"Flat-nosed" New World monkeys, naturally found in Central and South America. They are exclusively arboreal and small-bodied, with some species having prehensile (grasping) tails.

Catarrhines

"Downward-nosed" Old World monkeys, apes, and humans, naturally found in Africa and Asia; are terrestrial AND arboreal with larger bodies and no prehensile tails (though some OWM still have tails).

Sexual dimorphism

Observable phenotypic differences between males and females of the same species.

Primate social behavior

Differences in interaction based on age, sex, rank, and kinship.

Primate Residence Pattern: Polyandrous

One female with multiple males; low sexual dimorphism

Primate Residence pattern: Multi M/ Multi F

Common in Old World monkeys and New World monkeys; low sexual dimorphism

Primate Residence Pattern: Monogamous

One female with one male; low sexual dimorphism

Primate residence pattern: Solitary

Primates that only interact to mate; results in variable sexual dimorphism depending on the species

Primate Culture

Evidence of complex cognition, material culture and cultural practices unique to groups.

Primate Communication

Vocal and non-vocal forms depending on setting and intent; featured voice recognition, semantic meaning and affixation.

Primate forms of locomotion

Brachiation, arboreal quadrupedalism, terrestrial quadrupedalism, vertical clinging + leaping, knuckle walking, and bipedalism.

Arboreal Hypothesis

Suggests that defining primate characteristics resulted from a shift to life in trees.

Visual Predation Hypothesis

Suggests primates came to be due to the predation of small prey in arboreal settings.

Angiosperm Radiation Hypothesis

Suggests that colour vision and grasping hands/feet came to be due to the presence of angiosperms.

Miocene

A geological epoch that occurred approximately 23-5 million years ago; featured a warming trend that resulted in increasing temperatures over time, leading to climate and habitat changes such as grassland formation and sparser forests.

Bipedalism

Ability to walk on two legs.

Hunting Hypothesis

Belief that humans originated in Africa and differences between apes and humans are due to shift from arboreal living to terrestrial living and tool use.

Patchy Forest [Savannah] Hypothesis

Suggests hominin emergence was linked to the efficiency of bipedalism.

Provisioning Hypothesis

one of the three theories of hominin emergence; bipedalism occurred as a means of increasing reproduction (survival of viable offspring).

Defining Hominin Trait: Dentition

Development of large molars and smaller front teeth [first in Australopiths 4-2 million years ago]

Defining Hominin Trait: Brain size

Expansion of cranial capacity (cc) beyond 350-550 cm3; first appears ~2.4 million years ago in H. habilis

Defining Hominin Trait: Culture

Reliance on learned/shared patterns of behaviour and thought, spoken language, as well as the use of stone tools.

Pre-Australopithecines

Hominin group from ~7-4 million years ago, who were the first to show bipedal and dental changes. they retained ape-like features such as small cranial capacities, curved fingers, and opposable big toes, but also had inflexible feet, vertical spines underneath the skull, and no self-sharpening teeth (CP3 honing complex)

Australopithecines

Hominin group from ~4-1 million years ago, with small cranial capacity, short stature, non-honing canines and large premolars/molars. Thought to have been partially arboreal and bipedal

Genus Homo

Hominin group from 2.8 million years ago to present, characterised by larger cranial capacity, language use, and complex tool usage.

Homo habilis

Hominin species from 2.8-1.8 million years ago, known as "handyman" with short stature and rounder skull; thought to have communicated using spoken language

Homo erectus

Hominin species from 1.8-0.3 million years ago, characterised by taller stature, evidence of complete bipedalism, and usage of fire; considered the first endurance runners

Homo naledi

Newly discovered Hominin species with a similar skull to Homo erectus but a smaller cranial capacity.

Archaic Homo sapiens

500k-200k years ago; immediate ancestors to modern Homo sapiens, with increased cranial capacity and smaller facial structure.

Homo neanderthalensis

Hominin species from 230k-27k years ago, known for living in different ecosystems and interbreeding with modern humans.

Modern Homo sapiens

Endpoint of evolutionary timeline, characterized by a high vertical forehead, small brow ridges, and round and tall skull.

Mousterian

Material culture associated with Homo neanderthalensis; featured even more complex tool usage and diversified materials used to make tools, such as the Levallois flaking technique, bones, and other material tools used for game hunting and fishing.

Microevolution

Short-term evolutionary changes that occur within a species over relatively few generations of ecological time.

Macroevolution

Long-term evolutionary changes, especially the origin of new species, across space and over millions of years.

Phyletic gradualism

The theory that the original species slowly transforms into a new species (anagenesis) through the combined process of micro and macroevolution, with arbitrary species boundaries.

Punctuated equilibrium

The theory that a species remains stable for extended time periods with many new species appearing after sudden evolutionary changes due to upheavals in the environment, with evident species boundaries and notable differences between different species. New species coexist with parent species.

Theory for Modern Human Dispersal: Replacement Model (Out of Africa Hypothesis)

The theory that rapid spurt of evolution in Africa led to modern H. sapiens there, who eventually left to the rest of the world, replacing indigenous archaic H. sapiens and resulting in a single genus/species.

Theory for Modern Human Dispersal: Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis

The theory that archaic H. sapiens evolved from H. erectus in different parts of the world and continued evolving into modern H. sapiens through constant interbreeding and gene flow, resulting in a single genus/species.

Theory for Modern Human Dispersal: Assimilation Model

A combination of the Multiregional Continuity Hypothesis and the Replacement model; aligns with evidence of neanderthal DNA in non African populations and with higher levels of genetic diversity in Africans

Hominin Timeline

Pre-Australopiths — 7-4 million years ago

Australopithecines — 4-1 million years ago

Homo habilis — 2.8-1.8 million years ago

Homo erectus — 1.8-0.3 million years ago

Archaic Homo sapiens — 500k-200k years ago

Homo neanderthalensis — 230k-27k years ago

Modern Homo sapiens —300k years ago to present

Interdisciplinary

A characteristic of anthropology whereby it uses techniques, tools and insights from other disciplines/fields