BIO-111: Exam 1

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Lectures 1-5

Last updated 10:24 PM on 9/24/23
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155 Terms

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Science
An approach to understanding natural world; Based in observations, testable hypotheses, and experimentation/testing
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Scientific Method
Ask question

Research

Hypothesis

Experiment

Analysis

Conclusion
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Hypothesis
Testable and falsifiable statement accounting for a fact
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Why must a hypothesis be falsifiable?
Not every hypothesis is correct
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Conclusion
Scientist’s opinion of what the results mean; Must be supported by data and results of study
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What does science produce?
Facts

Data

Explanations

Technology & Innovations
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Fact
Info/data of the natural world
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Scientific Theory
Well-tested and supported hypothesis; General enough to develop further over hypotheses
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Data
Observations and measurements
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Qualitative Data
Non-numerical; Defining and explaining the data
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Quantitative Data
Numerical; Easily graphed and analyzed
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Independent Variable
Factor being manipulated/changed (ex: mouse color)
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Dependent Variable
Factor being measured; Results of the study (ex: predation rate)
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Control
Variable that isn’t being tested on; Serves as a comparison group
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Experiment
Variable that is being tested on; Used to find results
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Mouse Experiment Observation
Same species of mice were found in different habitats with different color coats
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Mouse Experiment Research
Learned that the natural predators of the mice are visual hunters
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Mouse Experiment Hypothesis
The coloration evolved as adaptations that camouflage mice in their native environments, protecting them from predation.
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Mouse Experiment Experimentation
Put inland mice in beach population and beach mice in inland population (controlled experiment)
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Mouse Experiment Results
In the beach habitat, 26% of beach mice were predated upon & 74% of inland mice were predated upon. In the inland habitat, 76% of beach mice were predated upon & 24% of inland mice were predated upon
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Mouse Experiment Conclusion
Mice that were camouflaged were predated upon less
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Darwinism
Descent with modification

Occurs through natural selection

Happens over generation (individuals don’t evolve, populations do)
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5 Theories within Darwinism
Perpetual change

Common descent

Multiplication of species

Gradualism

Natural Selection
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Theory #1: Perpetual Change
Living world is neither constant nor perpetually cycling, it’s always changing

Modifications occur over generations throughout time

Is the underlying theory of the 5 theories
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Evidence of Perpetual Change
Fossil record; Perpetual change is so well documented in the fossil record that it’s considered scientific fact
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Theory #2: Common Descent
All forms of life descended from a common ancestor through a branching of lineages

Living things have ancestors and leave descendants
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Phylogeny
Living things have ancestors and leave descendants
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Evidence of Common Descent
\
Comparative studies of living things

Using patterns of similarities and dissimilarities

Similar organisms have a more recent common ancestor than dissimilar organisms

Homology
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Homology
Similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry; Allows us to classify organisms
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Theory #3: Multiplication of Species
Speciation (occurs over hundreds of generations)
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Speciation
A single (ancestral) population can split to produce two or more populations that become different from each other (and the ancestral population) with time
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Geographic Speciation
Members of the same species that are unable to reproduce due to separation by a geographical barrier (ex: mountains, rivers)
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Reproductive Speciation
Biological factors/barriers that impede two species from producing viable, fertile offspring
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Example of Reproductive Isolation
Prezygotic barriers & postzygotic barriers
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Prezygotic Barriers
Stops egg from being fertilized by sperm
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Postzygotic Barriers
Is fertilized but isn’t viable or fertile
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Evidence of Multiplication of Species
Diversification of animals on islands

Environments with different ecological opportunities

Darwin’s finches
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Theory #4: Gradualism
Populations accumulate small changes over long periods of time

An accumulation of small changes may eventually lead to a large change
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Origin of new species
An accumulation of small changes may eventually lead to a large change
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Evidence of Gradualism
Should be able to find intermediate species in the fossil record (very rare)
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Theory #5: Natural Selection
Individuals with some traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than others due to those traits

Mechanism that explains why organisms appear to be designed to meet the demands of their environment

Populations accumulate favorable characteristics over long periods of time

Is a natural process

Produces adaptations
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Adaptation
Populations accumulate favorable characteristics over long periods of time

Inherited characteristic

Enhances survival and reproduction in specific environments

Aren’t perfect, represent a compromise between traits

Organisms adapt to the environment in which they originated

Evolution is always one generation behind their environment
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Fitness
An organisms ability to survive and reproduce
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Artificial Selection
Process humans use to select for desired traits in crops, domesticated animals, and livestock

Done over generations
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Darwin’s Postulates/Principles
Variation

Overproduction

Adaptation

Descent with modification
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What must be true for natural selection to occur?
All four principles must apply in order for natural selection to occur
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Principle #1: Variation
Individuals within a population differ in their inherited traits
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Principle #2: Overproduction
More offspring are produced than can survive which leads to competition
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Principle #3: Adaptation
Some individuals survive longer and reproduce more than others due to advantageous traits
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Principle #4: Descent with modification
The traits of individuals that survive and reproduce will become more common in a population

Differential Survival

Differential Reproduction
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Differential Survival
Individuals with favorable trails will survive better than individuals with less favorable traits
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Differential Reproduction
Individuals with favorable trails will reproduce more offspring than individuals with less favorable traits
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Differential Survival + Differential Reproduction =
Natural Selection
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On what or whom does natural selection operate?
Operates on individuals

“Survival of the fittest”

Less fit aren’t eliminated they just don’t survive and reproduce as well as the more fit
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Who or what evolves?
Populations evolve
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Population
Same species in the same place at the same time
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Can natural selection fashion the perfect organism?
NO

Natural selection can only act on existing variations

Evolution is limited by historical constraints

Adaptations are often compromised

Chance events can affect evolutionary history of populations
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When an environment changes, populations will either…
Adapt

Disperse

Go extinct
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Taxonomy
The method of grouping, naming, and ordering/arranging living things
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Taxonomy as a Human Characteristic
The desire and ability to name, group, and order living things is part of what makes us human; It’s important to differentiate between things
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Folk Taxonomies
Various ways people of different culture and geographic regions name, group, and order living things

Based on similarities and differences

Recognizes the same groups of animals and plants
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Folk taxonomy doesn’t include names for…
Really small living things (tiny insects, bacteria)

Organisms with differences too small for the human eye

Organisms not encountered (found on ocean floor)
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Taxa
Hierarchy of categories
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Hierarchies of Classification
Groups of organisms within groups

Shared common ancestry and traits

That distinguish from other groups
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**D**ear **K**ing **P**hilip **C**ame **O**ver **F**or **G**ood **S**oup
Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species
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Classification is…
SUBJECTIVE

Happens at all levels

“Lumpers” vs “Splitters”

People are biased

Definitions based on different species concept
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Species
A group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring
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Niche
Sum of how a species interacts in the world with living and non-living parts of the environment
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Common Names
Everyday names
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Scientific Names
Derived from Latin
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Why are scientific names necessary?
Common names are misleading

Many species have more than one common name

Multiple species can have the same common name

Many organisms don’t have common names
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Karl Linne
Swedish physician and naturalist that created the binomial system (two word names in Latin) that we use today
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Binomial Nomenclature Rule #1
Species name = genus name + specific epithet (ex: Loxodonta africana)
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Binomial Nomenclature Rule #2
Genus and specific epithet are italicized if typed and underlined if handwritten
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Binomial Nomenclature Rule #3
Genus is capitalized, specific epithet is not
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Binomial Nomenclature Rule #4
Can use genus name alone, but not the specific epithet
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Binomial Nomenclature Rule #5
Can abbreviate genus once mentioned
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How is the five-kingdom system classified?
Cell structure

Cell association

Mode of nutrition
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Prokaryotic Cell
No nuclei or organelles
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Eukaryotic Cell

Have nucleus and other membrane bound organelles

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Unicellular Cell
Composed of a single cell
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Multicellular Cell
Composed of many (connected) cells
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Autotroph
Make their own food (photosynthesis)
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Heterotroph
Need to eat other organisms
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Heterotroph by Digestion
Digest inside their body (ex: humans)
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Heterotroph by Absorption
Digest outside their body (ex: fungi)
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Photosynthesis
Process by which an organism uses sunlight to make food
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Respiration
A metabolic process by which organisms gain energy and release waste
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Three Domains System
Bacteria

Archaea

Eukarya
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Phylogenetic Tree
A branching diagram that illustrates the evolutionary history of a group of organisms
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Prokaryotic Cell Structure
Unicellular

No nucleus

No membrane enclosed organelles

DNA is circular
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Three Common Shapes of Prokaryotic Cells
Cocci (spherical)

Bacilli (rod-shaped)

Spirilla (spiral)
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Cell Colonies
Mass of individual bacteria cells

Began with a single cell

Appearance can be helpful in identification
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Binary fission
Ring of DNA replicates and the cell pinches in two
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Capsule

Sticky layer of protein or polysaccharide (carbohydrate) that surrounds the cell wall

Cells can adhere to one another or to a substrate

Protect against dehydration

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Fimbriae
Hair-like appendages

Allow cells to stick to another or to a substrate
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Endospore
Protected copy of chromosomes

Resistant to drying, heat, acids, even some disinfectants

Can survive for decades or centuries
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Nutritional & Metabolic Adaptations
Aerobic

Anaerobic

Facultative
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Aerobic
Needs oxygen to survive
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Anaerobic
Poisoned by oxygen

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