Studied by 12 people
Follows the Myers-DeWall Textbook and its equivalency to AP Units. This is Units 3 (9-15) and 5 (Modules 22-25) of the textbook
What is a pseudoscience?
Fake science; beliefs claimed to be created from the scientific method yet are false
What is phrenology? How come was it a pseudoscience?
Coined by Franz Gall. Studying brain functions by feeling bumps on skull. Pseudoscience b/c not all his inferences on regions & purposes were right, but some were correct, like the fact that different sections of our brain have distinct functions
What is biological psychology?
Studies relation between mental processes & behaviors with our natural make-up (genes, mutations, hormones, neurology)
Why are psychologists concerned about biology?
1) We’re biopsychosocial systems
2) Understanding human brain structure can help to understand other organism brains
3) Helped us find things out like brain sections having their own functions, & that these regions interact to create how we sense and interpret the world
[Review] What is the biopsychosocial perspective?
Biological (hormonal, genetic, neurological), psychological (conditioned behaviors, perception, attitudes, gene-environment interactions), & social (cultural, environmental) influences that manifest as behaviors
Why are we considered biopsychosocial systems? Why is it important to study this approach?
We’re natural, thinking/feeling, environment-influenced, bodies in families & larger groups that share culture. Psychologists study how these 3 interact together to understand us & behavior
What are the building blocks of our nervous system? What is it that they do?
Neurons (nerve cells). Does neural impulse—sending action potential to other neurons
What are the parts of a neuron?
(correspond #s in the image with its part)
1) Cell body; 2) Dendrites, 3) Axon, 4) Glial Cell, 5) Mylein Sheath, 6) Axon Terminal
What is the cell body, and its purpose?
Neuron’s lifeline, includes nucleus. Receives info from dendrites to excite / inhibit action potential in axon
What is the axon, and its purpose?
Electrical impulse sender that can stretch from a few feet to as much as 6 miles who sends an impulse to its terminal branches
What is the mylein sheath, and what is its purpose? What happens when mylein sheath degenerates?
Coating surrounding the axon’s vicinity. Speeds up and increases efficiency of sent neural impulses. Without mylein sheath, neural impulses may be blocked, or sent too slowly, leading to delayed reflexes or severely impaired function like in multiple sclerosis
What are glial cells, and what are their purpose? What happens when the body’s glial cells are surppressed/stripped?
Nourish neurons w/ nutrients, waste management, guide developing neurons to other neurons or other destinations, & regulates communication between neurons. Also support neurons in cognitive processes like memory. Without them, mylein sheath production is suppressed and can lead to MS
What are the terminal branches, and what is their purpose?
End destination of axon’s action potential; they are partially connected to a receiving neuron’s dendrites, with a synaptic junction minimally separating (or connecting) the two
What is the difference between chemical & electrical synapses?
Electrical synapses leave no gap between pre and post-synaptic junctions for more immediate messages, whereas chemical synapses do (neurotransmitters are usually chemical)
Who was accredited for finding a brief pause in transmission of chemical messages between neurons?
British physiologist Sir Charlies Sherrington; called this longer-than-usual intermission period the synapse, or the synaptic cleft/gap
What is a synapse, and what is its purpose?
The junction between sender neuron’s terminal branches and a receiving neuron’s dendrites. Neurotransmitter molecules bind to receptors here, and then are re-uptaken, broken down, or disposed
What is an action potential?
The electrical impulse being fired through an axon prior to being released as neurotransmitter molecules or electrical messages
How do axons trigger an action potential?
When dendrites & cell bodies receive neurotransmitters, they inhibit or excite action potential. If excitation surpasses the threshold—or limit—of inhibition, then action potential occurs
What are neurotransmitters?
The chemical molecules released from sender neuron during the intermission at a synaptic gap to either excite or inhibit new action potential
What occurs in the axon during an action potential?
Positive sodium (+) ions are outside axon, & inside are positive potassium (+) ions & many negative ions. When action potential is sent, permeable holes in axon form. Sodium, potassium, & negative ions mix, causing depolarization. This change in charges affect the next axon section; a domino effect. Afterwards, charges re-polarize back to resting potential
What is depolarization in action potential?
The alteration of charges to where it’s either slightly more positive, negative, or neutral. In action potential, depolarization occurs when axon becomes more positive
What is excitation vs inhibiting?
Excitation is the gas pedal that triggers action potential, and inhibition are the brakes preventing action potential
What is re-uptaking? What are other ways molecules can be disposed after reception?
Process of sender (pre-synaptic) neuron reabsorbing leftover neurotransmitter molecules for reuse. Other ways of disposing include breaking down with enzymes, or drifting away
What is the refractory period?
Momentary pause of a neuron after firing action potential. An axon must return to resting potential in order to fire more action potentials
What is the all-or-none response? What can surface area of a sensation affect?
Like a gun, neurons either fire or don’t fire. The intensity of a sensation ≠ intensity/speed of an action potential. Only mylein sheath speeds up action potentials. However, more intense sensations, like slaps, can excite a larger amount of neurons compared to smaller sensations, like poking
What are examples of neurotransmitters?
Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Gamma-aminobutryic acids (GABA), Glutamate, Endorphins
How do neurotransmitters affect behaviors? How do drugs neurotransmitters?
Ex: ACh is common in motor neurons, allowing movement. A lack of it may affect behavior through delayed motor skills. Drugs can block the re-uptake by pre-synaptic neurons, block reception of neurotransmitters between neurons, or mimic them to bind to receptors
What is Acetylcholine (ACh)? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Involved in memory, learning, & enabling muscle movement. A lack can cause paralyzation. A deterioration of ACh producing neurons can cause memory/movement diseases like Alzheimer’s
What is Dopamine? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Involved in learning, attention span, emotion, pleasure, and also movement. Overabundance may cause schizophrenia (hallucinations, etc) and mania, and a lack thereof can cause gradual limited mobility as seen in Parkinson’s and ADHD
What is Serotonin? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Involved in sleep, arousal, and hunger. A lack is correlated to Depression, and overabundance is correlated to medical emergencies like Serotonin Syndrome, or other things like OCD, anxiety, and headaches
What is Norepinephrine? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Controls arousal and alertness. Works with epinephrine for fight-or-flight to increase heart-rate, widen/constrict blood vessels, and etc…lack thereof may lead to a “crashed” depressed mood or changes in blood pressure
What is GABA (Gamma-aminobutryic acid)? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Inhibitory neurotransmitter. Involved in sleep and movement by slowing down nervous system firing. An overabundance may cause excessive sleep & exhaustion. Lack thereof may cause overstimulation, seizures, tremors, anxiety, etc
What is Glutamate? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Excitatory neural messenger—opposite of GABA. Involved in long-term memory & learning. Overabundance may cause over-stimulation, migraines, or seizures. Lack thereof can cause mental exhaustion & low concentration
What are Endorphins? What is its purpose and what are malfunctions that can occur from its imbalance?
Innate morphine in our bodies. Influences perceptions of pain and pleasure. Overabundance (like thru opiate abuse) can stop natural production of endorphins in our bodies, leading to drug addiction, or high pain tolerance. Lack thereof can cause lower pain tolerance
How come are drug dependencies dangerous, like that of opiate abuse?
Brains regulate chemical balance, meaning they can suppress or overreact brain structures in attempt to create more / less. Drugs like opiates suppress production, as they mimic endorphins and compete with them for synaptic receptors. Once suppressed, it’s difficult to reverse
What are agonists? What are examples of these?
Mimic neurotransmitter molecules to fit into receptors, which can elevate its effects by increasing production of or block its re-uptake (ie: SSRIs). Examples are anti-depressants, like Sertraline, that block serotonin reuptake
What are antagonists? What are examples of these?
Block the reception/production of a neurotransmitter, inhibiting certain action potentials & decreasing neuron activity. Amall amounts—like Botox—can be fine, but larger amounts—like in Botulin poison—can block ACh and cause paralysis
What is the Nervous System?
System where neurons take stimulus information from external surroundings to process and make decisions that may be carried out to other bodily tissues
What are nerves? What is the difference between nerves and neural networks?
Nerves are a congested group of bundled axons within neurons, and neural networks are bundles of neurons
What are the nervous system’s main sub-divisions? What are the smaller divisions of those sub-divisions?
Central & Peripheral Nervous Systems. Within Central is the brain and spinal cord, whereas the Peripheral has Somatic & Autonomic. The autonomic is split into sympathetic and parasympathetic
What does the Central Nervous System do? What about the Peripheral? How do they interact?
Makes body’s decisions, which PNS carries out via afferent, motor neurons. PNS can also report state of bodily tissue and parts through efferent, sensory neurons
What is the function of the spinal cord?
Receives sensory info from PNS to be intercepted by interneurons, and other lane for interneurons to receive responses from the CNS to send to motor neurons
What are reflexes? How does the spinal cord enable them?
Responses to sensory stimuli. Reflexes only need a sensory-inter-motor neuron system in the spinal cord, whereas pain signals need to go through the brain to be processed, hence reflexes are faster
What does the Somatic Nervous System do?
Controls voluntary, physical movement. CNS would take the info from the SNS on the state of a muscle, and motor neurons carry out the response to move
What does the Autonomic Nervous System do?
Isolated, self regulating system controlling automatic functions such as heartbeat and breathing, and regulates gland activity
What does the sympathetic system of the Autonomic system do?
Apart of ANS system that arouses the body—like fight-or-flight—by increasing heart-rate, inhibiting digestion, raising blood pressure, etc…
What does the parasympathetic system of the Autonomic system do?
Calms body after fight or flight by decreasing heartrate, blood pressure, and conserving bodily energy to maintain homeostasis
What are sensory neurons?
AKA efferent neurons; carries messages reporting the state of a bodily tissue, and report to the CNS
What are motor neurons?
AKA afferent neurons, these are sent by interneurons or CNS to bodily tissues to carry out responses
What are interneurons?
These interact in between motor and sensory neurons within the brain or spinal cord. They can receive info from sensory neurons and send out motor neurons
What are the types of sensory neurons?
Thermoreceptors, nociceptors (pain), photoreceptors, chemoreceptors, and mechanoreceptors (changes in pressure)
What is the endocrine system, and how does it interact with the nervous system?
Secretes hormones through blood (slower than electrical impulses but effects last longer) to send messages to bodily tissues and brain. The nervous system (brain) can secrete hormones to the blood, whose effects then re-affect the nervous system (brain, again)
What are hormones?
Chemicals from endocrine glands
What are the adrenal glands? What hormones can they release, and what are their functions?
Glands above the kidneys that release hormones like epinephrine and norepinephrine to arouse body through increased heartrate and widened blood vessels (fight-flight), cortisol for stress, (mineralcorticoids) salt, oxygen intake, etc…
What are the hypothalamus and pituitary gland? What can they secrete and what’s their functions?
(In the brain) The hypothalamus can secrete oxytocin (controls social trust + contractions like in labor) and pituitary can make growth hormones. Hypothalamus can stimulate pituitary to control other glands’ secretion of hormones
What is the thyroid gland, what can it secrete, and what is its function?
Gland in throat area that releases T3 and T4 responsible for metabolism and growth. Also produces Calcitonin, regulating calcium and phosphate in blood. Can convert glucose to energy
What are the testis and ovaries (gonads)? What can they secrete, and what are its functions?
Male/Female reproductive organs that can secrete testosterone, estrogen, and progesterone which control sex drive and menstruation
What is the pancreas? What can it secrete and what is its function?
Located above the intestine; can release insulin and glucagon which can regulate blood sugar and carbohydrate metabolism
What is the pineal gland? What can it secrete and what is its function?
Above pituitary gland in left side of brain; creates melatonin for sleep with aid of suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
What is the parathyroid? What can it secrete and what is its function?
Also near the thyroid; can release parathyroid hormones that regulate calcium and phosphate metabolism
What are lesions? How can they be used to study the brain?
Destroying small brain cell cluster tissues to see how minor damage to a part of the brain affects function
What is stimulation, and how is it used to examine the brain?
Stimulating certain parts of the brain will enable a response (or none if its an association area)
What is optigenetics? How is it used to study the brain?
Can examine action potential of neurons by triggering them with light in order to study biological bases of illnesses and behaviors
What are EEGs?
AKA Electricoencephalograms, uses electrodes on your head to study neural activity via recording electrical waves going across the surface of your brain
What are MEGs?
AKA Magnetoencephalography, uses head coils to isolate magnetic fields encompassing neural brain activity
What are CT Scans?
Computed Topographies look more in depth at damaged structures through series of X-Rays of area at different angles. Compared to MRIs, more in depth with bone/joint issues, blood clots/bleeding, and physical trauma
What are PET Scans?
Positron Emission Topographies use glucose to see which parts of the brain has most concentration when doing a task
What are MRIs?
AKA Magnetic Resonance Imaging, disorients spinning atoms in the head and unstuns them to receive atomic messages. Create soft tissue imaging of the whole brain. Can be used to further look at damaged areas like soft tissue, nerve & spinal cord issues, and inflammation
What are FMRIs?
FUNCTIONAL MRIs; looks at oxygenated bloodflow to parts in the brain when subjected to a task. When unoccupied, bloodflows in a web shape called Default network
What is within the (older structure) brain stem?
Medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum, and the thalamus. All of these structures operate unconsciously so that we have room for higher mental functions
What is the medulla and its function?
Above the spinal cord going up into the brain, controls automatic functions like breathing and heartbeat
What are the pons and its function?
A “pillow on the brain stem”, controls movement alongside cerebellum. Thought to be involved with sleep and dreams (producing and processing “random stimuli” making our dreams) as outlined by the Activation Synthesis theory
What is the Reticular Formation and what is its function? (in the midbrain)
Controls arousal and alertness (wake up or forever stay asleep), has many neurons in different parts of brain stem for reflexive and respiratory function, & can filter messages to stimulate brain with IMPORTANT & MEANINGFUL stimuli via Reticular Activation System
What is the thalamus and its function?
Receives sensory info of all senses minus smell, sends to responsible forebrain area(s), & can receive the brain’s response to send back to structures like the spinal cord
What is the cerebellum and its function?
Movement coordination and skill memory. Also involved in non-verbal learning, balance, time judgement, and emotional regulation
What does the Cerebral Cortex contain?
Gray Matter neurons engaged in higher mental processes and are not covered in mylein around the entire brain
What is the corpus callosum?
The nerve fibers that connect both hemispheres of the brain, allowing for communication of both “halves”
What is the amygdala and its function?
Lima bean sized pods located within temporal lobe adjacent to hippocampus. Associated with emotions like fear and anger, and may also be in charge of creating emotion-based memories
What is the hippocampus and its function
Seahorse structure in temporal lobe meant to create biographical memories and events, as well as new facts. NOT where they are stored. Shrinks as one ages or when one has a hippocampus tumor
Where are memories stored then?
Usually in the pre-frontal cortex but can be sparse around the brain
What is the hypothalamus and its function?
Can control pituitary gland for secretion of endocrine glands, and is also associated as a reward system to fulfill physiological needs (ie: pee, sleep, sex, etc) to maintain homeostasis
What is the frontal lobe and its function?
Underneath forehead, associated with judgement, planning, speaking, processing social expectations (ie: morals, acting in public, self-control), long-term working memory (ie: learning new information and later recall), attention span, & initiating movement
What is the parietal lobe and its function?
Behind frontal lobe; processes / sends responses from sense of touch, pain, temperature, & body position. Contributes to learning movement from position (like writing; “practice makes perfect” skills), spatial awareness, and location perception/recognition
What is the occipital lobe and its function? (hint: eyes in the back of your head)
Includes visual cortex that can process shapes, figures, colors, depth, and recognize objects/faces around us via feature detectors. Can interact with other brain areas in functions like memory by sending visual info to associate with memories or to plan responses in movement, etc…
What sides of the occipital lobe control what?
The left controls the left side of each eye—the right field of vision—and the right controls the right side of each eye—left field of vision
What is the temporal lobe and its function?
Includes auditory cortex that processes info from ears to hear. Can also receive information about our other senses. Includes hippocampus which creates episodic memories. Is associated with emotions & has amygdala dealing with emotion processing + expression. Also aids in recognition of faces, objects, balance, written/verbal language, and ability to understand language
What is the Angular Gyrus and its function?
Near Wernricke’s area and processess written language into auditory form so that we can comprehend it
What is the prefrontal cortex and its function?
In the frontal lobe and associated with judgement (Phineas Gage), working memory, speech, and planning. Encompasses Broca’s Area
What is the motor cortex and its function?
Controls voluntary movement; right hemisphere on left movement, vice versa. Arc areas of brain tissue called the Motor Homunculus dedicates bigger arcs for tissues most commonly controlled (ie: hands)
What is the somatosensory cortex and its function?
Receives sensory information from senses of touch, temperature change, body movement, and body position. Similar to the Motor Cortex, there is a Sensory Homunculus proportional to sensitivity of body parts
What is the Nucleus Accumbens and its function?
Near limbic system, correlated to drug dependency due to its contribution in reward, pleasure, and motivational circuit
What is the Basal Ganglia and its function?
Throughout mid and forebrain; connects motor cortex to thalamus and filters unecessary or incorrect signals from motor cortex. Damage may lead to cerebal palsy, huntington’s, or parkinson’s
Who discovered that stimulating one side of the brain triggers a response from the opposite side of the body?
Gustav Fritsch and Edward Hitzig. Their experiments inspired experiments for the motor and sensory homunculus
How did studying the motor and somatosensory cortex develop advances in psychological science and technology?
Cognitive Neural Prosthetics—electrodes attached to areas like parietal lobe regions & motor cortex to record neural impulses associated with intent to move limbs, and movement of such. This allow thoughts to control prosthetic limbs
What are association areas?
Brain areas within the lobe without explicit function and instead process and transmit stimuli from multiple parts of cerebral cortex for complex mental processes
What was Split-Brain Research?
Roger Sperry & Michael Gazzaniga split brains of seizure patients. Observed that things shown to left hemisphere are verbalized, things to right are physically demonstrated. Gazzaniga saw that left-hemisphere rationalizes & constructs narratives to make sense of things they’re unaware of perceiving or acting out
What did Split-Brain Research demonstrate?
Both hemispheres have different tasks to form one consciousness; they communicate their findings to each other via the corpus callosum. Nobody is “left” or “right brained”
What is Brain Lateralization?
Certain functions are influenced more by one hemisphere than the other
Ex: right influences speech tone & modulation, self-awareness, facial recognition, perceiving/expressing emotion, processing new information, spatial tasks, depth perception and making inferences. left influences literal language interpretation & production, processing with learned information, and rationale
What is consciousness? What is the dual processing theory of consciousness?
Subjective awareness of self and environment. Dual processing suggests we have a conscious and unconscious track of integrating and utilizing stimuli
(ie: turning while driving becomes unconscious after a while to free room for your conscious track)
What is cognitive neuroscience?
Studying the brain activity behind cognitive processes like memory, learning, thinking, and motivation
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