AP Psychology unit 3 flashcards

Cross-sectional

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time.

Longitudinal

A research method that studies the same individuals over a period of time to observe changes.

Menopause

The natural cessation of menstruation that typically occurs in middle-aged women.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in a female.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The body structures directly involved in reproduction, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as breast development in females and voice deepening in males.

Puberty

The developmental stage during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation of sperm in males, marking the onset of reproductive capability.

Concrete Operational Stage

A stage in Piaget’s theory where children (ages 7-11) gain the ability to think logically about concrete events.

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form.

Egocentrism

In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty in understanding perspectives other than their own.

Formal Operational Stage

The stage (beginning around age 12) where people begin to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed.

Preoperational Stage

A stage (ages 2-7) where children begin to use language and symbols but do not understand concrete logic.

Sensorimotor Stage

The first stage in Piaget’s theory (birth-2 years) where infants learn about the world through sensory impressions and motor activities.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that differ from one’s own.

Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky’s concept of the range of tasks a child can complete with guidance but not independently.

Babbling Stage

The stage of language development where infants produce sounds unrelated to language (around 4 months old).

Morphemes

The smallest meaningful units of language, such as prefixes or suffixes.

One-word Stage

A stage in language development (around 12 months) where a child speaks mostly in single words.

Phonemes

The smallest distinctive sound units in a language.

Semantics

The set of rules for deriving meaning from words and sentences.

Syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences.

Authoritative (Parenting Style)

A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands, promoting independence within limits.

Authoritarian (Parenting Style)

A parenting style emphasizing strict rules and obedience, with little warmth or flexibility.

Ecological Systems Theory

Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by multiple layers of interacting environmental systems.

Emerging Adulthood

A transitional period from late teens to mid-20s, bridging adolescence and adulthood.

Insecure Attachment

A bond characterized by anxiety or avoidance due to inconsistent caregiver responsiveness.

Parallel Play

When children play near each other but do not interact or influence each other’s play.

Permissive (Parenting Style)

A parenting style with high responsiveness but low demands, often resulting in a lack of discipline.

Secure Attachment

A bond characterized by comfort and confidence in the presence of a caregiver.

Temperament

An individual’s innate emotional reactivity and intensity, which influences behavior and personality.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus

A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

The process of replacing an unwanted conditioned response with a desirable one.

Extinction

The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization

The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-order Conditioning

A process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Unconditioned Response

A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

A reinforcement schedule where responses are occasionally reinforced, making the behavior resistant to extinction.

Fixed Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule that rewards the first response after a set period of time.

Instinctive Drift

The tendency for animals to revert to innate behaviors after conditioning.

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors with positive outcomes are more likely to recur.

Learned Helplessness

A mental state where an individual feels unable to control or avoid negative situations due to repeated failures.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a pleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water.

Shaping

A process where reinforcements guide behavior toward the desired outcome through successive approximations.

Variable Ratio Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses.

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the physical layout of an environment.

Insight Learning

A sudden realization of how to solve a problem without trial-and-error.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated when there is an incentive to do so.

Social Learning

Learning by observing and imitating others’ behaviors, also known as observational learning.