AP Psychology unit 3 flashcards

3.1 - Themes and Methods in Developmental Psychology

Cross-sectional
A research method that compares individuals of different ages at the same point in time.

Longitudinal
A research method that studies the same individuals over a period of time to observe changes.

3.2 - Physical Development across the Lifespan

Menopause
The natural cessation of menstruation that typically occurs in middle-aged women.

Menarche
The first occurrence of menstruation in a female.

Primary Sex Characteristics
The body structures directly involved in reproduction, such as ovaries, testes, and external genitalia.

Secondary Sex Characteristics
Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as breast development in females and voice deepening in males.

Puberty
The developmental stage during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.

Spermarche
The first ejaculation of sperm in males, marking the onset of reproductive capability.

3.4 - Cognitive Development across the Lifespan

Concrete Operational Stage
A stage in Piaget’s theory where children (ages 7-11) gain the ability to think logically about concrete events.

Conservation
The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in form.

Egocentrism
In Piaget’s theory, the preoperational child’s difficulty in understanding perspectives other than their own.

Formal Operational Stage
The stage (beginning around age 12) where people begin to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical problems.

Object Permanence
The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be observed.

Preoperational Stage
A stage (ages 2-7) where children begin to use language and symbols but do not understand concrete logic.

Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage in Piaget’s theory (birth-2 years) where infants learn about the world through sensory impressions and motor activities.

Theory of Mind
The ability to understand that others have beliefs, desires, and intentions that differ from one’s own.

Zone of Proximal Development
Vygotsky’s concept of the range of tasks a child can complete with guidance but not independently.

3.5 - Communication and Language Development

Babbling Stage
The stage of language development where infants produce sounds unrelated to language (around 4 months old).

Morphemes
The smallest meaningful units of language, such as prefixes or suffixes.

One-word Stage
A stage in language development (around 12 months) where a child speaks mostly in single words.

Phonemes
The smallest distinctive sound units in a language.

Semantics
The set of rules for deriving meaning from words and sentences.

Syntax
The rules for combining words into grammatically correct sentences.

3.6 - Social-Emotional Development across the Lifespan

Authoritative (Parenting Style)
A parenting style characterized by high responsiveness and high demands, promoting independence within limits.

Authoritarian (Parenting Style)
A parenting style emphasizing strict rules and obedience, with little warmth or flexibility.

Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner’s theory that development is influenced by multiple layers of interacting environmental systems.

Emerging Adulthood
A transitional period from late teens to mid-20s, bridging adolescence and adulthood.

Insecure Attachment
A bond characterized by anxiety or avoidance due to inconsistent caregiver responsiveness.

Parallel Play
When children play near each other but do not interact or influence each other’s play.

Permissive (Parenting Style)
A parenting style with high responsiveness but low demands, often resulting in a lack of discipline.

Secure Attachment
A bond characterized by comfort and confidence in the presence of a caregiver.

Temperament
An individual’s innate emotional reactivity and intensity, which influences behavior and personality.

3.7 - Classical Conditioning

Acquisition
The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that elicits a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning
The process of replacing an unwanted conditioned response with a desirable one.

Extinction
The weakening of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Generalization
The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-order Conditioning
A process in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Unconditioned Response
A naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

3.8 - Operant Conditioning

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
A reinforcement schedule where responses are occasionally reinforced, making the behavior resistant to extinction.

Fixed Interval Schedule
A reinforcement schedule that rewards the first response after a set period of time.

Instinctive Drift
The tendency for animals to revert to innate behaviors after conditioning.

Law of Effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors with positive outcomes are more likely to recur.

Learned Helplessness
A mental state where an individual feels unable to control or avoid negative situations due to repeated failures.

Negative Reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior.

Positive Reinforcement
The addition of a pleasant stimulus to increase a desired behavior.

Primary Reinforcer
A stimulus that satisfies a biological need, such as food or water.

Shaping
A process where reinforcements guide behavior toward the desired outcome through successive approximations.

Variable Ratio Schedule
A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given after an unpredictable number of responses.

3.9 - Social, Cognitive, and Neurological Factors in Learning

Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the physical layout of an environment.

Insight Learning
A sudden realization of how to solve a problem without trial-and-error.

Latent Learning
Learning that occurs without immediate reinforcement but is demonstrated when there is an incentive to do so.

Social Learning
Learning by observing and imitating others’ behaviors, also known as observational learning.