Key Concepts in Sociology and Social Interaction

Social Fact

Products of human interaction that have a persuasive or coercive influence and exist independently of individual will (e.g., laws, norms, customs).

Social Structure

The organized pattern of social relationships and institutions that shape society.

Micro-level

Individual or small group interactions (e.g., families, friend groups).

Meso-level

Organizations, communities, or social networks.

Macro-level

Broad systems such as class, government, economy.

Agency

The capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own choices, even within the constraints of social structure.

The Sociological Imagination

the capacity to consider how people's lives (including our own) are shaped by the social facts that surround us.

Personal Troubles

Individual problems (e.g., unemployment due to personal choice).

Public Issues

Societal problems affecting many (e.g., mass unemployment due to economic downturn).

Falsifiable

Capable of being tested and possibly disproven.

Theoretical

Based on or involving theory; seeks to explain observed phenomena.

Empirical

Based on observed and measurable evidence.

Objective

Unbiased, not influenced by personal feelings or opinions.

Communal

Scientific knowledge is shared and evaluated by the community.

The Research Circle

A model describing how scientific research typically cycles between theory, hypothesis, data collection, and analysis.

Deductive Research

Starts with a theory/hypothesis and tests it with data.

Inductive Research

Starts with data collection and develops theories based on findings.

Quantitative Methods

Focus on numerical data and statistical analysis (e.g., surveys).

Qualitative Methods

Focus on meanings, experiences, and social processes (e.g., interviews, ethnography).

Experiments

Controlled methods to test cause and effect.

Surveys

Structured questionnaires to gather data from many people.

Network Analysis

Examines relationships and flows between people or organizations.

Interviews

In-depth, often open-ended conversations to explore experiences.

Ethnography

Immersive observation of people in their natural environments.

Content Analysis

Systematic analysis of texts, media, or documents.

Informed Consent

Participants' voluntary agreement to partake in research after understanding its purpose and risks.

Confidentiality

Ensuring participant information is kept private.

Field Notes

Observational notes taken during ethnographic research.

Culture

Shared beliefs, practices, norms, and material objects that define a society or group.

Cultural Objects

Tangible items with cultural significance (e.g., art, clothing).

Cultural Cognitions

Shared ways of thinking or interpreting the world.

Cultural Practices

Regular, shared behaviors (e.g., rituals, traditions).

Social Construct

A concept developed and maintained through social interaction (e.g., race, gender).

Social Construction

The process by which social constructs are created and maintained.

Culturally Competent

Awareness of and ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures.

Culture Shock

Disorientation felt when encountering a different culture.

Socialization

The process of learning social norms, values, and roles.

Interpersonal Socialization

Learning through interactions with family, friends, etc.

Self-Socialization

Internal process of shaping identity and behavior.

Media Socialization

Learning via exposure to media content.

Agents of Socialization

Individuals and institutions that teach us norms (e.g., family, school, media).

Cross-Cultural Comparison

Studying similarities and differences between cultures.

Subculture

A group within a larger culture with distinct norms and values.

Hook-Up Culture

A social environment that encourages casual sexual encounters.

Institutions

Established systems or structures guiding behavior (e.g., education, religion, family).

Formal Practices

Codified behaviors (e.g., written rules, job descriptions).

Informal Practices

Unwritten, socially understood norms (e.g., dress codes).

Hierarchy

System of ranked positions or authority.

Roles

Expected behaviors associated with a particular status or position.

Division of Labor

Distribution of tasks among individuals or groups.

Rationalization

Increasing reliance on logic, efficiency, and rules over tradition.

Organizations

Structured groups formed to pursue goals (e.g., businesses, nonprofits).

McDonaldization

The spread of efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control to all areas of life, modeled after fast food.

Efficiency

Optimizing processes.

Predictability

Standardizing experience.

Calculability

Emphasis on quantity over quality.

Ideology

A system of beliefs that justifies or challenges social arrangements.

Social Identities

Categories individuals are assigned or choose (e.g., gender, race, class).

Primary Cultural Frame

The dominant way a society interprets and organizes identity.

Stereotypes

Oversimplified and fixed ideas about a group of people.

Controlling Images

Stereotypes used to reinforce social hierarchies and oppression.

Status Beliefs

Widespread cultural beliefs that one group is more competent or deserving than another.

Rewards of Social Identities

Social advantages or disadvantages linked to identities (e.g., privilege, discrimination).

Social Rules

Guidelines for behavior in social contexts.

Folkways

Casual norms for everyday behavior (e.g., etiquette).

Mores

Norms with moral significance (e.g., cheating is wrong).

Taboos

Prohibited behaviors (e.g., incest).

Policies

Formal rules often enacted by organizations or governments.

Laws

Codified norms backed by the state.

Social Sanctions

Penalties or rewards to enforce norms (e.g., praise, fines).

Symbolic Interactionism

A theory that focuses on symbols and meanings in social interaction.

Dramaturgy

Viewing social interaction as theatrical performance.

Impression Management

Efforts to control how others perceive us.

Face and Face-Work

Preserving one's dignity or public image in social interactions.

Front Stage

Public behavior, visible to others.

Back Stage

Private behavior, hidden from public view.

Ethnomethodology

Study of how people produce social order in everyday life.

Ethnomethods

The everyday practices people use to make sense of their world.

The Looking-Glass Self

The self-concept that develops through our perception of how others see us.