HISTORY: The Witchcraze - Science and Reason

Define natural philosophy and who was it influenced by?

• Study of the natural world (eventually through the use of the scientific method)

• Influenced by Plato

Who influenced empiricism?

Aristotle

What were the methods used in the scientific revolution?

• Use of maths

• Observation

Give some background to Galileo’s life

• Born in Pisa 1564

• Was Prof of Maths at Uni of Padua

• Produced work on motion, ballistics but most importantly ASTRONOMY

Who was Galileo influenced by?

• Copernicus, agreed with many of his findings

• Aristotle

• Ptolemy

What was Gaileo’s defining feature?

• His communication skills

• Wrote Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems (1632)

• This was a debate/ dialogue between 3 thinkers

What were Galileo’s early controversy?

• 1616 he wrote Discourse on the Tides

• Suggested that tides were caused by Earth speeding/ slowing on its axis

• Catholic Inquisition said this contradicted Biblical teachings

• He was help in suspicion for 20 years

Who’s teachings did Galileo reject and what did he find instead?

• Rejected Tyco Brahe’s teachings of the sun orbiting Earth

• Used telescope to identify new features 1610

• Found features on moon similar to earth, it wasn’t made of mysterious elements

• Natural motion around Earth was circular

• Discovered Jupiter’s moons = Earth not unique in having a moon

• Discovered new stars

What did Galileo write in 1623?

• The Assayer

• Said studying the universe must be a balance of maths and experiment

How did people and the Church respond to Galileo’s ideas?

• Didn’t convince them to question Copernicus or Brahe

• Catholic Church prohibited his work as it contradicted the Church-supported Aristotelian system

• He was found guilty of heresy

• Made to sign something retracting his theories and was placed under house arrest

Where were his works placed and what happened to them after?

• Added to the Index Librorum Prohibitor

• Removed from the index 1758

Who influenced Galileo’s most famous publication?

• Aristotle’s logical approach and Copernicus’ ideas of the universe being heliocentric (sun at centre)

• The “two world systems” are the Ptolemaic system (influenced by Aristotle) and the Copernican system

Briefly outline what the structure of the dialogue was

• Convo between 3 thinkers

• One argues for Copernican view providing Galileo’s view that the universe is unchangeable, and gives evidence of new stars through telescopic observation

• Other advocates Ptolemaic system arguing against Copernican

• Middle is neutral, he is ordinary while other two are philosophers

What were the weaknesses of Copernican theory?

• Couldn’t explain how this heavy large planet could rotate forever

• Galileo rejected Aristotle’s idea that everything that moves must be pushed

• Suggested idea of a friction-less incline = Earth would keep rotating if undisturbed

• He had to reject Kepler’s ideas of elliptical motion as it undermined his own

• Came close to understanding gravity but failed

What positive impact did Galileo have?

• He rejected church authority over science, believed truth comes from experience

• Works translated into many European languages

• Developed mathematical approach to studying natural phenomena

• Cared for observsation and empiricism

What was Copernicus’ background?

• Born 1473 in Poland

• Wealthy background

• Studied medicine and law in Italy

• Became a doctor and church administrator

Who had influenced Copernicus

Agreed with Aristotle and Ptolemy that heavenly bodies move in perfect circles

What were Copernicus’ findings?

• Universe is heliocentric which opposed Ptolemy

• The 6 planets he knew about revolved around the Sun

• Earth moved on own axis

• Moon revolved around Earth

How was Copernicus limited?

• Had to present his work as Platonic Theory to avoid accusations of blasphemy

• 1616 book was banned by Catholic

• Church, added to the Index

• Not removed till 1758

How was Copernicus impactful?

• Book became highly influential later

• Ideas accepted as fact by many intellectual circles but not during his lifetime

How was Copernicus’ impact limited?

• Made theoretical conclusions rather than empirical observations

• Continued to believe planets moved in perfect circles

• Only 10 thinkers accepted his theory as truth before 1600

What was Kepler’s background?

• Born in Germany 1571

• Witnessed the Great Comet (one of 3 Brahe had observed) and became passionate about astronomy

Who influences Kepler?

• Tycho Brahe

• He believed all planets circled the Sun but Sun circled Earth

• Observed new supernova showing that world could change

• Witnessed many comets showing that circular motion was incorrect

• Kick-started understanding of elliptical motion

• Copernicus’ heliocentric view also influences him

What was one of Kepler’s key publications?

• Cosmic Mystery 1596

• Asserted his strong religious faith saying universe perfectly designed by God

• Adopted heliocentric view of Copernicus but challenged idea of circular motion

What was Kepler’s most famous finding?

• New Astronomy 1609

• Notable as it included Kepler’s first two laws of planetary motion

• 1st = planets move in elliptical orbits around Sun

• 2nd = Planets don’t travel at consistent speeds

How was Kepler different to other natural philosophers?

• He used his own observations as well as maths to come to his conclusions

How was Kepler limited?

• Spent lots of time defending his mother as she was accused of witchcraft 1617, his output slowed

• Didn’t properly understand gravity so couldn’t understand gravitational pull of the sun

How was Kepler influenced by religion?

• Was deeply religious

• Saw astronomy as religious duty as it would help him understand God’s world

• Believed God created the world faultless and to a specific mathematical model

• This limited him as he was more preoccupied with discovering God’s plan

How was Kepler impactful?

• Most important finding was elliptical motion which was correct

• His use of maths helped rather than simply describing his theories

• Blurred the boundaries between natural philosophy and maths

What was Newton’s background?

• Born 1643 during the civil war

• Went to Trinity College, Cambridge

• Became president of Royal Society 1703

Who influenced Newton?

• Developed on Kepler’s laws of planetary motion (esp last law)

• Also influenced by Galileo’s use of natural philosophy and mathematics together

• Huygen’s work on motion and gravity also influenced him - published similar notion to Newton’s second law 14 years before Newton did

What were Newton’s most influential findings/ publications?

• Published Principia Mathematica 1687

• Explained his discovery of gravity from the famous tree story

• Also showed how Kepler’s planetary laws of motion could be proved mathematically

• Able to explain centrifugal force

What were Newton’s three laws of motion?

1 - Every object will remain at rest or continue at current speed unless external force acts on it

2 - external force of object is equal to mass of object times rate of acceleration

3 - for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

How was the impact of Newton’s theories limited?

• Was aware he wouldn’t have been so successful without those before him

• His work rep last stages of long process of discovery

• Works weren’t initially very accessible as published in Latin

How was Newton limited in his understanding of the world?

• Believed in magic like Kepler

• Was also an alchemist

• Believed dif particles could be attracted across empty space

• Believed power of light and gravity had supernatural forces responsible for them

• Studied the Bible and wrestled with its meaning

• Speculated when the world would end

What is deductive reasoning?

• traditional method of thought in 17th cent

• basing ideas on preconceived ideas/ theories

What is inductive reasoning?

• Reasoning and ideas based on evidence alone

• Nothing must be taken for granted

• Ideas can be proven false through evidence

What is Francis Bacon’s background?

• Active earlier than Newton

• Born into well-connected family in London 1561

• Enrolled to Cambridge at 12 to Trinity

• Became barrister 1582

• Was later a member of the privy council

What were Bacon’s keyheories?

• Focused on collecting evidence to make theories emphasising inductive reasoning

• Wanted to pursue the experimental and rational approaches

• Believed scientific discoveries were best collected by lots of data

• He rejected old ideas

• This method was called the Baconian Method

Name two of Bacon’s publications

• Wrote “The new Instrument” 1620

• “The Advancement of Learning” 1605 - said empirical knowledge was superior

What impact did Bacon have?

• Died 1626, many emulated his work eg: John Locke

• Civil War brought new acceptance of his ideas after 1640

• Influenced founding of Royal Society 1660

What were Bacon’s limitations?

• Helped to preserve belief in magic

• Anything that had been observed counted, including false accounts of witchcraft

• Impact only came after 1640

Give the background to Gresham College

• Set up by Thomas Gresham

• He held substantial fortune and died 1579

• The Royal Exchange funded it with their profit to establish a college for Mathematical Success

What was the impact of Gresham College?

• Known as the invisible college

• Founded 1597

• The members of it would go on to form the Royal Society 1660

• Referred to as the “Greshamites” in contemp. lit

Why was the founding of Gresham necessary?

• The only area of professorship that hadn’t been established at Oxford or Cambridge was astronomy and geometry so it was founded at Gresham

• In 1619 when Oxford opened up vacancies for this position they all came from Gresham

What were the key contributions of Gresham college?

• First geometry and astronomy professorship

• William Bedwell translated important mathematical works into English and invented new ruler to carry out geometric calculations

• Edmund Gunter worked with naval officials and improved navigation

What was the background to the Royal Society?

• Founded 1660

• Wouldn’t have happened if political climate wasn’t adequate

• Influenced by Charles II’s interest in science

• He gave them a Royal Charter

• They met once a week and had men from all areas of study eg: Locke (philo) and Pepys (civil service)

What influenced the Royal society?

Baconian method

What were the Royal Society’s key contributions?

• 1684 they focused on science

• More prominent than oxford/cambs post-restoration

• Baconian aim to gather all knowledge about nature gained respect

• Encouraged foreign scientists to join

What is the name of the scientific journal published by the Royal Socety and when was it published?

• Philosophical Transactions

• 1665

• This shared info and was more significant thing they did

• Eg: works of William Harvey on blood circulation

How were the Royal Society impactful?

• Aimed to use knowledge for public good instead of just for a few intellectuals

• In 18th century, science became part of the public consciousness

• Significantly undermined belief in witchcraft and magic through its critical investigation

How was the royal society limited?

was simply a channel for scientists to air their discoveries

What was Hobbes’ background?

• Born 1588

• Went to Oxford

• Discovered love for philosophy while travelling

• Worked for Francis Bacon

• Fled to Paris during civil war

What were Hobbes’ key contributions?

• In Paris began to formulate the Leviathan and published it in 1651

• Advocated for strong government led by one person, a reaction to recent regicide 1649

Who influenced Hobbes?

• His work focused on deductive rather than inductive reasoning

• Met Descartes while travelling and agreed that knowledge should be based on indisputable principles

• Also used Galileo’s geometric idea as conclusions in geometry are indisputable

Who did Hobbes challenge?

• Challenges Bacon’s views on inductive reasoning saying it was too experimental

• Said inductive method always had an element of doubt

What did Hobbes argue for?

• Materialism

• The view that everything is created by matter

• All observed events are a result of matter acting on matter

How was Hobbes limited?

• Deductive reasoning is problematic if it starts with a questionable premise

• Hobbes acknowledges there could be spirits with material bodies that are too find to be seen by humans

How impactful was Hobbes?

• As a materialist can be no room for belief in the supernatural/ magic as it isn’t grounded in matter

• Some say materialism goes some way to explain why belief in witchcraft and magic declined after 1660

• Webster and Bekker and Holt used rational influenced by Hobbes

What was Locke’s background?

• Born 1632

• His puritan father fought for parl during civil war

• Studied medicine at Oxford

• Entered service of Earl of Shaftesbury who was founder of the whig movement

What were Locke’s key works?

• Seen as father of modern empiricism

• Sought only to make conclusions based on observation

• Wrote Essay Concerning Human Understanding

What was the impact of Locke’s work?

• His essay questioned how we think and concluded that experience is most important source of our knowledge

• Said supernatural events should be ignored as they can’t be seen or observed

How was Locke limited?

• Still acknowledges spirits could exist

• Believed in astrology