skill acquisition - skill classification, methods/types of practice, transfer, learning theories, guidance, feedback phases of learning, memory models

what is a skill

an organised, coordinated activity in relation to a situation which involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms

what is a motor programme

a series of subroutines organised into the correct sequence to perform movement, which are stored in the long term memory

what are subroutines

the fixed or individual parts that make up a skill

what are the 6 different skill continua used to classify skills

CEMPOD (continuity, environment, muscular, pacing, organisation, difficulty)

what is a discrete skill (continuity)

a definitive beginning and end, brief single skill

what is a serial skill (continuity)

a number of discrete skills put together to make a sequence, where the order is important

what is a continuous skill (continuity)

there is no clear beginning or end, a cycle, usually performed for a long period of time. repeated

what is an open skill (environment)

the skill is often affected by the environment as it is constantly changing, so movements have to be continuously adapted, externally paced, lots of info to process

what is a closed skill (environment)

skill is not impacted by the environment as it is predictable so the performer knows exactly what to do and when the movements follow set patterns.

what is a gross skill (muscular)

it involves large muscle movements and groups which are not very precise, controlling major body movements eg. walking

what is a fine skill (muscular)

involves small muscle movement and groups, they tend to be very precise and require high levels of hand eye coordination to control small bodily movements

what is an externally paced skill (pacing)

performance of the action is determined by external sources, theses involve reaction and are usually open skills

what is a self paced skill (pacing)

the performer decides when to perform the skill and decides the rate of the skill, usually closed skills

what is a low organised skill (organisation)

subroutines can be easily identified from the overall movement ad can be practised in isolation

what is a high organised skill (organisation)

the subroutines are closely linked and the skill can’t be broken down into subroutines

what is simple skill (difficulty)

little information to process, few decisions, time to use feedback and few subroutines

what is a complex skill (difficulty)

large amounts of information to process, affected by the environment, many decisions, and many subroutines

what are the 4 methods of practice

whole, part, whole part whole, progressive part

what are the 4 types of practice

massed, distributed, varied, fixed

what is whole practice

skill are taught without breaking down into subroutines or parts

when is whole practice used

high organised skills

why is whole practice used

allows the learner to develop a kinaesthesis

what is part practice

working on an isolated subroutine with the aim of perfecting it

when is part practice used

low organised skill which are easy to break down, if the task is complex or dangerous

why is part practice used

reduces overload, helps to gain confidence

what is whole part whole practice

practising the whole skill, then practising a subroutine in isolation then practising the hole skill again

when is whole part whole practice used

serial skill

why is whole part whole practice used

to recognise strengths and recognise and correct specific skill errors

what is progressive part practice

skills are broken down into subroutines, performer learns one link, then a second link and practises these by a process of chaining more links and subroutines are added n

when is progressive part practice used

complex skill, low organisation skill, serial skills

why is progressive part practice used

allows performer to learn links between subroutines and transfer these to the whole skill

what is massed practice

practice sessions with very short or no rest intervals

when is massed practice used

discrete skill of short duration, motivated performer with high fitness levels

why is massed practice used

to groove skills, long sessions to stimulate fatigue

what is distributed practice

practice sessions with rest intervals included

when is distributed practice used

continuous skills, dangerous complex skills, cognitive learners

why is distributed practice used

rest intervals allows learners to receive feedback, helps to maintain motivation

what is fixed practice

specific movement pattern is practiced repeated in a stable environment, a drill

when is fixed practice used

with closed skill that require specific movement patterns to become overlearned

why is fixed practice used

to allow skills to become habitual and automatic

what is varied practice

when a skill is performed in many environments

when is varied practice used

open skill where practice conditions should be as realistic as possible

why is varied practice used

allows the storing of experiences in long-term memory, can develop perceptual and decision-making skills

what is transfer?

when acquiring movement skills involves the influence of learning and performance of another skill

types of transfer

1. positive
2. negative
3. bilateral
4. retroactive
5. proactive

what is positive transfer

its where one skill helps or enhances the learning and performance of another skill

what is negative transfer

this occurs when the learning of a new task is hindered by the learning or performance of another skill

what is proactive transfer

where an already learnt/performed skill influence the learning/performing of a new skill

what is retroactive transfer

where the learning/performing of a new skill influences the learning/performing of an old skill

what is bilateral transfer

this is the transfer that takes place from one limb to another

what is an example of positive transfer

tennis serve to volleyball serve

what is an example of negative transfer

badminton to squash to tennis (wrist)

what is an example of proactive transfer

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what is an example of retroactive transfer

what is an example of bilateral transfer

a footballer passing the ball with both feet/ a goalkeeper saving the ball with both hands

how can positive transfer be optimised

using similar skills to promote transfer, ensure skills are well learned and fully grooved, positive reinforcement, clear demonstrations

how do we reduce the effect of negative transfer

do not teach conflicting skills close together in time, practice and match conditions are the same, help the learner understand the requirements of the task, practice parts of a skill in the right sequence

what are the 4 learning theories

operant conditioning, thorndike’s laws, cognitive theory, social learning theory

what is operant conditioning

it’s an associationist view of learning. learning occurs via trial and error, shaping and reinforcing behaviour

what is positive reinforcement (operant conditioning)

given when the desired response occurs and increases the chance of the response happening again, strengthens S-R bond praise (intangible) or reward (tangible)

what is negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)

an undesirable response (annoyer) is removed following the desired response (satisfier)

what is punishment (operant conditioning)

giving an unpleasant stimulus to prevent a response from occurring

what are advantages of operant conditioning

quick and effective, effective in simple movement tasks, effective for young people

what are disadvantages of operant conditioning

hard to adapt to different situations, little understanding needed so learning may lack depth, too much positive reinforcement can lead to arrogance

what are thorndike’s laws

explain reinforcement and use it as method to strengthen the S-R bond

what are the 3 thorndike’s laws

1. law of exercise

2. law of effect

3. law of readiness

what is law of exercise (thorndike’s laws)

repetition/rehearsal strengthens S-R bond, leads to habit

what is the law of effect (thorndike’s laws)

any action that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated

what is the law of readiness (thorndike’s laws)

a learner must be physically and mentally ready to perform a skill/complete the task

what is the cognitive theory of learning

Problem-solving, Insight Learning, Gestaltsist, Whole learning, Intervening variables, Previous Experience

what are disadvantages of cognitive learning theory

whole skill may be too complex/dangerous, may give up easily due to lack of motivation, learner may have no past experience to draw on

what is social learning theory

all behaviour is learned through socialisation and imitation for emotional reasons

Bandura’s 4 processes of modelling (social learning theory )

1. attention

2. retention

3. motor reproduction

4. motivation

attention (social learning theory)

most focus on important cues this is influenced by models’ perceived attractiveness, competence, status, similarity

retention (social learning theory )

observer must be able to remember the model to create a mental picture

motor reproduction (social learning theory )

observer must be physically able to do the skills, the demo must match the capability of the observer

motivation (social learning theory)

observer must be motivated to learn. external reinforcement will increase the drive

what are the 3 phases of learning

cognitive, associative, autonomous

who identified the stage of learning

fitts and posner (1967)

which stage of learning is the earliest stage

cognitive

what stage of learning is the latest

autonomous

what is the middle stage of learning

associative

what are the characteristics of the cognitive stage

lots of trail and error, the learner is trying to create a mental picture

what are the characteristics of the associative stage

performer practices the skills and compare it to the mental picture, refine skills and eliminate skills

what are the characteristics of the autonomous stage

movements are autonomic or subconscious and motor programmes are fully grooved

what does performance look like in the cognitive phase

poor accuracy, insositents, lack of fluency and many errors

what does performance look like in the associative phase

more fluent, fundamental skill mastered, subroutines in place, motor programmes developed

what does performance look like in the autonomous phase

motor programmes are fully grooved, flunet, coordinated

what is selective attention

the process of picking out and focusing on the relevnat parts of the display.

what is kinaesthesis

the sense that tells the brain about about the movement and the state of contraction of the muscles, tendons and joints. it allows the performer to know whether the movement is being performed correctly.

how can we make sure that learners progress through the pahses

overlearn skills, ensure practice is progressive, game situation practice, positive feedback following success

what is guidance

information is given to the learner to help them limit possible mistakes

what are the 4 types of guidance

verbal, visual, manual, mechanical

what is verbal guidance

communicate via words and speech used to describe and explain how to perform and activity, must be clear and concise

what stage of learning is verbal guidance most effective

autonomous

what is a positive of verbal guidance

can reinforce good movements and identify errors to be corrected, can hold attention of the performer and be used to motivate

what are negative of verbal guidance

information overload, if guidance is inaccurate, skills will be hindered

what is visual guidnace

demonstrations can be used to help a learner

what is a positive of visual guidance

creates a mental picture, encourages observational learning

what is a negative of visual guidance

if the demo is incorrect it can lead to bad habits, the coach may be unable to show accurate demonstration, it may be unclear or to quick for learner understand