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what is a skill
an organised, coordinated activity in relation to a situation which involves a whole chain of sensory, central and motor mechanisms
what is a motor programme
a series of subroutines organised into the correct sequence to perform movement, which are stored in the long term memory
what are subroutines
the fixed or individual parts that make up a skill
what are the 6 different skill continua used to classify skills
CEMPOD (continuity, environment, muscular, pacing, organisation, difficulty)
what is a discrete skill (continuity)
a definitive beginning and end, brief single skill
what is a serial skill (continuity)
a number of discrete skills put together to make a sequence, where the order is important
what is a continuous skill (continuity)
there is no clear beginning or end, a cycle, usually performed for a long period of time. repeated
what is an open skill (environment)
the skill is often affected by the environment as it is constantly changing, so movements have to be continuously adapted, externally paced, lots of info to process
what is a closed skill (environment)
skill is not impacted by the environment as it is predictable so the performer knows exactly what to do and when the movements follow set patterns.
what is a gross skill (muscular)
it involves large muscle movements and groups which are not very precise, controlling major body movements eg. walking
what is a fine skill (muscular)
involves small muscle movement and groups, they tend to be very precise and require high levels of hand eye coordination to control small bodily movements
what is an externally paced skill (pacing)
performance of the action is determined by external sources, theses involve reaction and are usually open skills
what is a self paced skill (pacing)
the performer decides when to perform the skill and decides the rate of the skill, usually closed skills
what is a low organised skill (organisation)
subroutines can be easily identified from the overall movement ad can be practised in isolation
what is a high organised skill (organisation)
the subroutines are closely linked and the skill can’t be broken down into subroutines
what is simple skill (difficulty)
little information to process, few decisions, time to use feedback and few subroutines
what is a complex skill (difficulty)
large amounts of information to process, affected by the environment, many decisions, and many subroutines
what are the 4 methods of practice
whole, part, whole part whole, progressive part
what are the 4 types of practice
massed, distributed, varied, fixed
what is whole practice
skill are taught without breaking down into subroutines or parts
when is whole practice used
high organised skills
why is whole practice used
allows the learner to develop a kinaesthesis
what is part practice
working on an isolated subroutine with the aim of perfecting it
when is part practice used
low organised skill which are easy to break down, if the task is complex or dangerous
why is part practice used
reduces overload, helps to gain confidence
what is whole part whole practice
practising the whole skill, then practising a subroutine in isolation then practising the hole skill again
when is whole part whole practice used
serial skill
why is whole part whole practice used
to recognise strengths and recognise and correct specific skill errors
what is progressive part practice
skills are broken down into subroutines, performer learns one link, then a second link and practises these by a process of chaining more links and subroutines are added n
when is progressive part practice used
complex skill, low organisation skill, serial skills
why is progressive part practice used
allows performer to learn links between subroutines and transfer these to the whole skill
what is massed practice
practice sessions with very short or no rest intervals
when is massed practice used
discrete skill of short duration, motivated performer with high fitness levels
why is massed practice used
to groove skills, long sessions to stimulate fatigue
what is distributed practice
practice sessions with rest intervals included
when is distributed practice used
continuous skills, dangerous complex skills, cognitive learners
why is distributed practice used
rest intervals allows learners to receive feedback, helps to maintain motivation
what is fixed practice
specific movement pattern is practiced repeated in a stable environment, a drill
when is fixed practice used
with closed skill that require specific movement patterns to become overlearned
why is fixed practice used
to allow skills to become habitual and automatic
what is varied practice
when a skill is performed in many environments
when is varied practice used
open skill where practice conditions should be as realistic as possible
why is varied practice used
allows the storing of experiences in long-term memory, can develop perceptual and decision-making skills
what is transfer?
when acquiring movement skills involves the influence of learning and performance of another skill
types of transfer
positive
negative
bilateral
retroactive
proactive
what is positive transfer
its where one skill helps or enhances the learning and performance of another skill
what is negative transfer
this occurs when the learning of a new task is hindered by the learning or performance of another skill
what is proactive transfer
where an already learnt/performed skill influence the learning/performing of a new skill
what is retroactive transfer
where the learning/performing of a new skill influences the learning/performing of an old skill
what is bilateral transfer
this is the transfer that takes place from one limb to another
what is an example of positive transfer
tennis serve to volleyball serve
what is an example of negative transfer
badminton to squash to tennis (wrist)
what is an example of proactive transfer
what is an example of retroactive transfer
what is an example of bilateral transfer
a footballer passing the ball with both feet/ a goalkeeper saving the ball with both hands
how can positive transfer be optimised
using similar skills to promote transfer, ensure skills are well learned and fully grooved, positive reinforcement, clear demonstrations
how do we reduce the effect of negative transfer
do not teach conflicting skills close together in time, practice and match conditions are the same, help the learner understand the requirements of the task, practice parts of a skill in the right sequence
what are the 4 learning theories
operant conditioning, thorndike’s laws, cognitive theory, social learning theory
what is operant conditioning
it’s an associationist view of learning. learning occurs via trial and error, shaping and reinforcing behaviour
what is positive reinforcement (operant conditioning)
given when the desired response occurs and increases the chance of the response happening again, strengthens S-R bond praise (intangible) or reward (tangible)
what is negative reinforcement (operant conditioning)
an undesirable response (annoyer) is removed following the desired response (satisfier)
what is punishment (operant conditioning)
giving an unpleasant stimulus to prevent a response from occurring
what are advantages of operant conditioning
quick and effective, effective in simple movement tasks, effective for young people
what are disadvantages of operant conditioning
hard to adapt to different situations, little understanding needed so learning may lack depth, too much positive reinforcement can lead to arrogance
what are thorndike’s laws
explain reinforcement and use it as method to strengthen the S-R bond
what are the 3 thorndike’s laws
law of exercise
law of effect
law of readiness
what is law of exercise (thorndike’s laws)
repetition/rehearsal strengthens S-R bond, leads to habit
what is the law of effect (thorndike’s laws)
any action that is positively reinforced tends to be repeated
what is the law of readiness (thorndike’s laws)
a learner must be physically and mentally ready to perform a skill/complete the task
what is the cognitive theory of learning
Problem-solving, Insight Learning, Gestaltsist, Whole learning, Intervening variables, Previous Experience
what are disadvantages of cognitive learning theory
whole skill may be too complex/dangerous, may give up easily due to lack of motivation, learner may have no past experience to draw on
what is social learning theory
all behaviour is learned through socialisation and imitation for emotional reasons
Bandura’s 4 processes of modelling (social learning theory )
attention
retention
motor reproduction
motivation
attention (social learning theory)
most focus on important cues this is influenced by models’ perceived attractiveness, competence, status, similarity
retention (social learning theory )
observer must be able to remember the model to create a mental picture
motor reproduction (social learning theory )
observer must be physically able to do the skills, the demo must match the capability of the observer
motivation (social learning theory)
observer must be motivated to learn. external reinforcement will increase the drive
what are the 3 phases of learning
cognitive, associative, autonomous
who identified the stage of learning
fitts and posner (1967)
which stage of learning is the earliest stage
cognitive
what stage of learning is the latest
autonomous
what is the middle stage of learning
associative
what are the characteristics of the cognitive stage
lots of trail and error, the learner is trying to create a mental picture
what are the characteristics of the associative stage
performer practices the skills and compare it to the mental picture, refine skills and eliminate skills
what are the characteristics of the autonomous stage
movements are autonomic or subconscious and motor programmes are fully grooved
what does performance look like in the cognitive phase
poor accuracy, insositents, lack of fluency and many errors
what does performance look like in the associative phase
more fluent, fundamental skill mastered, subroutines in place, motor programmes developed
what does performance look like in the autonomous phase
motor programmes are fully grooved, flunet, coordinated
what is selective attention
the process of picking out and focusing on the relevnat parts of the display.
what is kinaesthesis
the sense that tells the brain about about the movement and the state of contraction of the muscles, tendons and joints. it allows the performer to know whether the movement is being performed correctly.
how can we make sure that learners progress through the pahses
overlearn skills, ensure practice is progressive, game situation practice, positive feedback following success
what is guidance
information is given to the learner to help them limit possible mistakes
what are the 4 types of guidance
verbal, visual, manual, mechanical
what is verbal guidance
communicate via words and speech used to describe and explain how to perform and activity, must be clear and concise
what stage of learning is verbal guidance most effective
autonomous
what is a positive of verbal guidance
can reinforce good movements and identify errors to be corrected, can hold attention of the performer and be used to motivate
what are negative of verbal guidance
information overload, if guidance is inaccurate, skills will be hindered
what is visual guidnace
demonstrations can be used to help a learner
what is a positive of visual guidance
creates a mental picture, encourages observational learning
what is a negative of visual guidance
if the demo is incorrect it can lead to bad habits, the coach may be unable to show accurate demonstration, it may be unclear or to quick for learner understand
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