theory and methods

aqa a level sociology theory and methods

positivists

seek to discover patterns, believe sociology is a science, prefer quantitative data to establish cause + effect, favour reliability + representativeness

interpretivists

seek to understand meanings, prefer qualitative data and favour validity

what is a practical advantage of experiments?

lab experiments are quick + cheap and can be controlled easily

what is a practical disadvantage of experiments?

may take time to plan lab experiments, and takes time to assess an environment

what is an ethical advantage of experiments?

easy to gain consent

what is an ethical disadvantage of experiments?

some lab experiments are psychologically harming or could include deception

what is a reliability advantage of experiments?

lab experiments are structured + follow precise steps

what is a reliability disadvantage of experiments?

field experiments are less controlled so less standardised

what is a validity advantage of experiments?

field experiments give a valid picture of behaviour in natural environments

what is a validity disadvantage of experiments?

hawthorne effect could take place in lab experiments

what are some case studies that use experiments?

* durkheim (comparative)
* milgram (laboratory)

what is a representativeness advantage of experiments?

lab experiments can be repeated in many cultures to test generalisability of results

what is a representativeness disadvantage of experiments?

field experiments usually study smaller samples so harder to generalise to wider population

which theorist would prefer experiments?

* lab/comparative - positivists
* field - interpretivists

what is a practical advantage of questionnaires?

quick, easy + cheap

what is a practical disadvantage of questionnaires?

data likely to be brief as people are more likely to complete shorter questionnaires

what is an ethical advantage of questionnaires?

anonymous + confidential

what is an ethical disadvantage of questionnaires?

may be sensitive subjects

what is a reliability advantage of questionnaires?

most use quantitative data meaning easier to collect more data to establish patterns

what kind of theory is functionalism?

structural consensus

3 key thinkers for functionalism

Durkheim, Parsons, Merton

What kind of theory is Marxism?

structural conflict

Marxism key thinkers

Marx, Engels, Althusser, Gramsci

What kind of theory is feminism?

a set of structural conflict approaches

who is the founder of modern sociology?

Comte

what is anomie?

a feeling of normlessness

What is Parson’s organic analogy?

society acts like a body, social institutions interact the same way as body or

Methodology

the method that a researcher uses to collect his/her data

Quantitative data

numbers, statistics etc

Qualitative data

detail, opinions etc

Primary sources

collected research by yorself

Secondary sources

data made by someone else but used in your study

Reliability

repeating or replicating research using the same method for the same research and achieving the same results

Validity

the extent to which the findings of research actually provide a true, genuine or authentic picture of what is being studied

Representative

achieving the same results if you surveyed the whole of society. a good cross-section of society

Objectivity

approaching topics with an open mind, avoiding bias, and being prepared to submit research evidence to scrutiny of other researchers

PET issues

practical, ethical, theoretical

Practical issues

logistics of conducting the research

Ethical issues

The moral and ethical conduct of the researcher and potential participants

Theoretical issues

preferences that researchers display towards researching society (perspective/ methods)

What century did the enlightenment period come about?

18th century: 1700's

What are the two key features of the enlightenment?

ReligionRational thinking

Human reason

Refers to being enabled to explain society and how it works. Moving from religion to rational thinking.

Human progress

Refers to the knowledge gained on how the world works in order to create a better world. E.g sciences helped to eradicate disease and social sciences help tackle poverty.

Empiricism

Knowledge based on reason

What occurred in the 19th century?

Sociologists aimed to create a Utopian society

Feminism

Believe society functions in order to benefit men at the expense of women. This is evident within our patriarchal society

Marxism

Society functions in order to benefit the ruling class at the expense of the subject class.

Postmodernists

Structures do not improve society, they accept it. Fragmentation etc, is inevitable.

Theory

An idea that attempts to provide explanation for something

Structural approaches overview

Macro view, modernist approach, top down deterministic approach, believe that in order to understand behaviour we have to understand the forces that shape it

Which theoretical approaches are structural?

Marxism, feminism and functionalism

Action approach overview

Micro view, bottom up anti-deterministic approach, understanding behaviour needs to be based on understanding of individual actions, free agents with free will

Postmodern approach over view

Argues that modernist theory is out dated, globalisation has fundamentally changed society, society is now an unstable saturated global village, which has a hyper reality which is fragmented and chaotic.

Functionalism: Durkheim

1858-1917

Marxism: Karl Marx

1818-1883

Neo-Marcism

1970's

Feminism

First wave- 19th century. Second wave- 1960's onwards

Interactionism: Weber

1864-1920

Postmodernism

1970's onwards. Counter argument- late modernity

What kind of motivation do structural approaches possess?

Extrinsic motivation

What kind of motivation do action approaches believe individuals possess?

Intrinsic motivation

Are action theories voluntaristic?

Yes, as they note that we create and shape our lives, and in turn, society.

Why do Postmodernists believe that modernist theories are outdated?

As there are no more grand narratives, they are mere meta-narratives and plural truths. There is no objective reality which can be measured

Do positivists believe that sociology can be studied scientifically?

Yes. They believe that it has a clear cut predictable structure, which is measurable allowing for the identification of social facts and empirical knowledge.

What do positivism value?

Reliability - standardised info which can be replicated, Representativeness - large scale accounting for a typical cross section, Cause and effect relationships

Practical factors able to impact research

Research opportunity Time and money Access, funding body, skills and characteristics of the researcher. (Largest funding body\=gov. Quantitative method- stats)

Do interpretivists believe that sociology can be studied scientifically?

No. society is far too complex and should not be modelled on the natural sciences.

What do interpretivists value?

Validity

What is science?

A set of principles that tell us how to produce valid knowledge. It then aims to base laws and theories on objective facts gained through observing phenomena.

Objectivity

Where the research does not involve opinions, or bias or prejudice.

What do positivists believe regarding reality?

They believe reality exists outside and independently of the human mind and that a structure is evident, where people are told what to do via external forces.

What is society according to positivism

An objective factual reality that is made up of social facts (patterns) and these things dictate actions

What are social facts according to LUKES?

They are social forces found within the structures of society, they have 3 key features: They are external to individualsThey constrain individuals shaping their behaviourThey are greater than the individual, existing in a different level.

What social facts did DURKHEIM use in his comparative method experiment?

Social integration, and moral regulation.

Is reality patterned according to Positivism?

Reality is not random or chaotic, it is patterned. Real laws are discoverable and these laws will explain patterns

Inductive reasoning

Involves accumulating data about the world via careful observation and measurement. As knowledge increases, patterns can be identified.

A03 of Inductive reasoning: POPPER

Fallacy of induction

What patterns did DURKHEIM observe in his observation of suicide rates?

Suicide rates remained constant over time, when rates changes this coincided with other changes, fell during war time, rose during economic crisis, different societies rates are different, Lower rates for Catholics than protestants

From what did DURKHEIM develop the fourfold typology?

From his observations of suicide rates

What does DURKHEIM claim to have established in his fourfold typology?

A truth, where he then develops a general law

Verificationism

Inductive reasoning claiming to verify a theory

A03 of verificationism: POPPER:

Falsificationism

What do interpretivists believe about social actors

They are far too complex to be studied scientifically

Which theory takes an interpretivist approach?

Feminism and interactionism

What is the difference between sociology and the natural sciences?

NS study matter which has no consciousness. Behaviour can be explained in relation to external stimulus- it cannot make choices about its behaviour. Sociology studies people who are conscious. To understand people meanings must be understood

Mead

FREE WILL

Verstehen

Idea of stepping into somebody else's shoes. Identified by WEBER- using his perspective it requires subjective understanding which draws on people's opinions

What are interpretivist methods, and how could they be argued to achieve verstehen?

Covert observations, unstructured interviews: allows for a rapport, Documents(2ndary) open questionnaires. Each tries to get understanding of social actors meanings and life worlds

Interactionism: GLASER AND STRAUSS

argue that a positivist approach risks imposing our view of what's important rather than the actors and so distorts reality. Should not begin with a hypothesis, bottom up approach-grounded theory. Should observe ideas then produce testable hypothesis

Interactionism: DOUGLAS

challenged the validity of the official statistics an aimed to uncover meanings which can only be done using qualitative approaches

Ethnomethodology: GARFINKEL

Society is not a real thing it exists in our minds, and so cannot be measured to identify cause and effect. People are not governed by external forces and therefore there is no possibility of cause and effect relationships

ATKINSON: Ethnomethodology

Notes that meanings cannot be uncovered as the person (died) cannot justify it.

Postmodern beliefs

No longer a unifying truth that all believe in, sociology cannot be value free, science is a meta narrative, plural truths, there is no objective reality waiting to be measured

What is the postmodern perspective on science?

Just another meta narrative, undesirable and does not always lead to progress, dangerous and claims a monopoly of the truth, does not always bring benefits and is an unsuitable method for SOC. example- Soviet Union, communism, MOT

Why does feminism differ to the other structural theories?

Opposed completely to positivism as they believe it is patriarchal and unable to capture the reality of a woman's experience

What are the two questions answered by POPPER in regards to science?

What makes scientific knowledge unique?

Why has scientific knowledge grown so much in the past few centuries?

The fallacy of induction

Induction is the process of moving from the observation of particular instances of something to arrive a a general statement or law. POPPER noted we can't prove a theory true by simply producing further observation to verify it

Falsificationism: POPPER

Proving something wrong. Science is so unique it sets to falsify ideas. Cannot be disproved, they have to be accepted as the best version of the truth at that time.

Unscientific research being unable to be falsified: POPPER

Example- MARXISM: Marx noted that a revolution would occur. However they note this has not yet happened due to being indoctrinated into a false class consciousness. Cannot be proved wrong and so is untestable