Alchemy, Chemistry, and Atomism: Key Concepts and Historical Perspectives

What is alchemy?

Study of how things are generated and corrupted; understanding transformation in nature.

What is chrysopoeia?

Transmutation of one metal into another, especially gold making.

What is iatrochemistry?

Medical alchemy—using chemical principles for healing and pharmacology.

What were the main goals of alchemy?

Create gold, heal metals and people, discover universal medicine (philosopher's stone).

Why was "al-" dropped from alchemy to chemistry?

Anti-Arabic sentiment; "al" seen as foreign or unrefined.

How did "gentlemen scientists" differ from alchemists?

Chemists seen as clean, rational, elite; alchemists as dirty, manual laborers.

Why was alchemy associated with fraud?

Linked to counterfeit coin making and deception about metal transmutation.

What are the Leiden and Stockholm Papyri?

3rd-century recipe books for imitation gold, silver, gems, and dyes.

What cultures influenced early alchemy?

Egyptian craft practices + Greek natural philosophy (Egypt under Roman rule)

What type of writing are the papyri?

Practical recipes and instructions, not theoretical explanations.

How did Aristotle think metals formed?

From smoky (sulfur) and oily (mercury) exhalations congealing underground.

What are the two principles of metal formation in Aristotle's view?

Sulfur (smoky) and mercury (oily/wet).

What two substances make up all metals in Jabir's theory?

Mercury and sulfur.

What do the properties of a metal depend on in Jabir's system?

Ratio, purity, and "cooking time" of mercury and sulfur.

What makes gold special in Jabir's theory?

Perfect 1:1 ratio of pure mercury and sulfur → incorruptible.

How did Jabir explain transformation between metals?

Change their qualities (hot, cold, wet, dry) through distillation.

How does Jabir link alchemy to medicine?

Metals and humans share same materials → both can be healed or perfected.

Who was Pseudo-Geber?

Italian friar Paul of Taranto writing under Jabir's name.

What book did Geber write?

Summa Perfectionis.

What is the "Mercury Alone Theory"?

All metals made of mercury; differences due to particle size and density.

What determines metal properties in Geber's corpuscular theory?

Size and packing of corpuscles (particles).

Why is gold incorruptible, according to Geber?

Tiny, tightly packed corpuscles → acids can't penetrate.

Why is lead reactive?

Large, loosely packed corpuscles → porous and open to corrosion.

How does Geber say you transmute a base metal into gold?

Use purified mercury to fill pores and densify the metal.

Why were mercury and antimony used in medicine?

Thought to share healing properties with metals; used as internal "elixirs."

What connects metal healing and human healing?

Both aim to restore perfect balance of natural elements.

What is Aristotle's hylomorphism?

Everything is made of matter and form together.

What is substantial form?

The essential nature of something (its "whatness").

What is accidental form?

Nonessential qualities (e.g. color, size).

What is prime matter?

Pure potentiality, undifferentiated material underlying all things.

What did Unitists believe about substantial form?

Only one substantial form can exist in a thing (lead can't also be gold).

What did Pluralists believe?

Multiple forms can coexist (metal + gold, human + female, etc.).

How does the house analogy explain matter and form?

Each level (clay → brick → house) shows new form imposed on old matter.

How does Geber combine Aristotle and atomism?

Metals made of particles combining into mercury and sulfur clusters., Denser = gold, looser = tin/lead.

What is the "mercury decay theory"?

Mercury fills pores and prevents decay or rusting.

Was Geber a unitist or pluralist?

Unitist—believed each metal had one true form.

What are the four humors?

Blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile.

How does Geber's elixir differ from Jabir's?

Jabir: multiple elixirs for different metals. Geber: one universal mercury elixir that perfects all.

What is "perfection" in alchemical terms?

Perfect balance of elements (strength)→ no decay → state like aether.

What is corpuscularianism?

Matter made of small corpuscles (particles) retaining identity, change = rearrangement.

How did Boyle interpret corpuscularianism?

Matter changes state (ice → water → vapor) without changing its form.

What was the Philosopher's Stone thought to do?

Transmute all metals into gold and grant perfect health or longevity.

What did Roger Bacon say about human art and nature?

Human art (alchemy) can equal or surpass nature.

Why was authorship and credibility controversial in alchemy?

Many used pseudonyms (e.g. Geber) to sound authoritative; blurred science vs. fraud.

What is mechanical philosophy (17th c.)?

Explains all natural phenomena through matter and motion, rejecting action at a distance, occult forces, and substantial forms.

What are primary qualities?

Size, shape, and motion of particles.

What are secondary qualities?

Effects of primary qualities, e.g., color, taste, sound, temperature.

Name the major Greek atomists

Leucippus, Democritus, Epicurus.

Key principles of Greek atomism?

Bodies are made of indivisible atoms and void; properties depend on atom type, arrangement, and proportion of atom to void.

Difference between classical atomism and corpuscularianism?

Corpuscles can be divisible in theory; smallest unit retains identity but can split; chemical reactions explained by interactions.

Key corpuscularian thinkers?

Robert Boyle, Pierre Gassendi.

Corpuscles: primary vs secondary attributes?

Primary: solidity, extension, figure, motion. Secondary: sound, taste, temperature.

Pierre Gassendi's 4 mechanical doctrines?

1) Everything is matter or motion 2) Only efficient causes exist 3) No action at a distance 4) Manifest and occult qualities share mechanical causes

Descartes' contribution?

Plenum theory (no void, matter fills space); circular vortex motion explains natural phenomena.

Rejection in mechanical philosophy?

Occult forces, substantial forms, sympathy/antipathy (hidden affinities), action at a distance.

Mercury-Sulfur theory (Jabir Ibn Hayyan, 8th c.)?

Metals composed of mercury (common) + sulfur (species differences); differences explained by ratio.

Paracelsus (1493-1541) contributions?

Tria prima: mercury (fluid), sulfur (flammable), salt (stable); replacement for humors/elements; German lectures.

What is Alkahest?

Universal solvent that reduces substances to basic components without being consumed.

Joan van Helmont (1580-1644)?

Substances made from water + vital seeds; discovered gases (CO₂, methane); qualitative experiments like Willow-Tree experiment.

Robert Boyle (1627-1691)?

Corpuscularian; experiments like redintegration of saltpeter prove substances are made of corpuscles, not inseparable mixtures.

Boyle's Redintegration Experiment?

Decomposed KNO₃ into volatile + fixed parts, recombined to produce KNO₃ again → proves corpuscular theory. (review details

Isaac Newton and alchemy?

Modified Mercury-Sulfur theory (mercury, sulfur, salt); experimented with sophic mercury to create gold; emphasized following nature's processes.

George Starkey (Eirenaeus Philalethes)?

Alchemist who corresponded with Boyle; provided recipes for sophic mercury.

Descartes vs Newton on motion?

Descartes: vortex theory, circular motion, no void. Newton: gravity not explained mechanically; force acts at a distance.

Alchemical cycle of metals (Newton)?

Metals cycle life/death underground via vapors; organizational seeds produce growth of gold.

Corpuscular interactions explain what?

Chemical reactions; spatial arrangement and "hooks" determine properties; no occult forces needed.

Primary vs secondary qualities of corpuscles?

Primary: solidity, extension, figure, motion. Secondary: sound, taste, hot/cold.

Significance of chymistry?

Empirical, experimental approach; supports mechanical philosophy; demonstrates properties via experiments.

Willow-Tree experiment?

Plants composed mostly of water; semina (vital seeds) organize water to produce plant structure.

Sophic mercury?

Alchemical compound used to "wake up" gold in the creation process.

Redintegration reaction of saltpeter?

Break KNO₃ into components → recombine → KNO₃ reforms → shows corpuscles, not Aristotelian mixture. (review again)

Why was alchemy unknown in Western Europe before the 12th century?

Western Europe had no access to Greek works until the translation movement from Arabic into Latin.

What did the translation movement bring to Western scholars?

Full access to Aristotle and Galen's works.

Who was Theophilus and what did he do?

A monk who compiled alchemical recipes like "Spanish gold" from copper, basilisk powder, and vinegar.

Who was "Geber" actually?

Likely an Italian friar, not Arabic; followed Aristotelian causes.

What was Geber's Summa Perfectionis about?

Existence of chrysopoeia (gold-making), purification of metals, and their properties.

Describe Geber's three degrees of metal purification

1) Superficial change, 2) Transmutation via animal/vegetable substances, 3) True mineral transmutation (Philosopher's Stone).

What is the Mercury-Sulfur theory?

All metals made from mercury and sulfur in different proportions.

How did Geber explain metal strength?

Gold = tightly packed particles (fire can't enter); lead = loosely packed (fire melts easily).

What is sublimation?

Process where metals vaporize, purify, and solidify again.

How did Ibn Sina (Avicenna) challenge alchemy?

Claimed art is weaker than nature; true transmutation impossible.

What did Thomas Aquinas argue about art vs. nature?

Art can imitate nature's appearance but not its essence.

How did Roger Bacon view alchemy?

A way to strengthen Christianity; art can surpass nature; used for medicine.

Why was alchemy banned in France, England, and Italy?

To prevent counterfeit coins and protect the economy.

Who were the Spirituals and what did they believe?

Franciscan group (Roger Bacon, John of Rupescissa, Arnald) who saw alchemy as defense against Antichrist.

What did John of Rupescissa believe about the Philosopher's Stone?

Made from mercury, sulfur, and a hidden salt.

How was alchemy compared to Christianity?

Mercury's suffering and transmutation into gold paralleled Christ's passion and resurrection.

What was "burning water"?

Alcohol (discovered by Geber), seen as incorruptible "fifth element."

What was the medical use of gold and quintessence?

Preserving life and preventing decay during tribulation.

What was alchemy's scope beyond metal transmutation?

Healing, plant growth, and spiritual perfection.

How did Ramon Lull connect alchemy to politics?

Claimed he could make gold to fund a crusade (legend).

What was iatrochemistry?

Paracelsus's teaching on medical applications of alchemy.

History of the Book & Writing Materials elements

ease of transportation, ease of production, ease of reproduction

What were early writing materials before the Middle Ages?

Stone, papyrus (Egyptians), wax tablets, clay tablets (cuneiform). Advantages: easy to transport, easy to write on, could refresh surface. Disadvantages: not durable; low literacy; many scientific works lost.;What was the primary writing material in the Middle Ages?;Parchment (animal skin), very durable but labor-intensive. Ink used; copied by monks by hand.

What were the main issues with manuscript copying?

Mis-transcriptions and misinterpretations common; durable and movable but not easy to produce or reproduce.

When did paper overtake parchment in Europe?

15th-16th centuries, aided by Gutenberg's movable typeset press (~1450s) which allowed fast, accurate reproduction of texts.

What were key ancient medical theories preserved in texts?

4 elements: air, water, fire, earth (Aristotle/Empedocles). 4 humors: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, black bile (Hippocrates & "Nature of Man").

What did Galen contribute to medicine?

Wrote "On Temperaments" (hot, cold, wet, dry) and commentaries on Hippocrates. No human dissections; used animals → some anatomical errors persisted.

How did Paracelsus challenge Galen?

Advocated tria prima (salt, sulfur, mercury) instead of 4 humors. Emphasized chemistry/pharmacology over classical medicine. Lectured in German, not Latin; conflicted with universities.

Who was the first university professor of "chymiatria"?

Johannes Hartmann, University of Marburg, 1609.